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OUR OCEAN PLANET
OUR OCEAN PLANET
SECTION 10 – HUMANS AND THE OCEAN
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10. HUMANS AND THE OCEAN
10. HUMANS AND THE OCEAN
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10. HUMANS AND THE OCEAN
This section discusses human interactions with the ocean. We start
with a brief history of people and the ocean. This is followed by a
description of our attempts to explore the ocean. We also describe
some of the fields and technologies involved in studying the ocean.
We then continue by describing ocean conservation by outlining
some of the main reasons we need a healthy ocean. Finally, we
describe some of the problems we are causing and some possible
solutions to these problems.
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10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
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10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
The following presents a brief history of people and the ocean. This
is followed by a description of our attempts to explore the ocean and
some of the fields and technologies involved in studying the ocean.
10.1.1 History
PRE-1000 AD
Egyptians (4,000 BC)
The Egyptians develop shipbuilding and ocean piloting skills.
Phoenicians (1,000-600 BC)
The Phoenicians explore the Mediterranean Sea, reach England,
and circumnavigate Africa by following the coastline.
Greeks (384-192 BC)
Aristotle (384-322 BC) describes how sharks produce live young and
recognizes that dolphins are not fish.
Through the use of
trigonometry, Eratosthenes (276-192 BC) accurately determines the
circumference of the Earth.
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10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
Romans (54 BC-30 AD)
Seneca puts forward his hypothesis on the “hydrological cycle” of
water.
Ptolemy (150 AD)
Ptolemy the Greek compiles the “Roman World Map” which
incorporates the basic lines of longitude and latitude.
Polynesians (300-800 AD)
The Polynesians spread east across the Pacific reaching New
Zealand, Hawaii, and Easter Island.
The Venerable Bede (673-735 AD)
The English monk, Bede, describes the lunar influences on tidal
cycles and recognizes the monthly tidal variations.
Interesting!
Bluetooth technology is a shortrange wireless communications
technology intended to replace
the cables connecting portable
and/or fixed devices, and allows
a wide range of devices to
connect and communicate with
each other.
The name "Bluetooth" is from
the 10th century Danish King
Harald Blatand (or Harold
Bluetooth in English) who was
critical in uniting Norway,
Sweden and Denmark just as
Bluetooth technology hopes to
allow different devices such as
computers, keyboards,
earpieces and phones to work
together.
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
Vikings (ca. 790-1066 AD)
The Vikings were Scandinavian seafaring traders, warriors and
pirates who raided and colonized wide areas of England, Scotland,
Normandy, and other parts of Europe and North America from the
late 8th to 11th centuries. King Harold Godwinson, the last AngloSaxon king of England, who was killed during the Norman conquest
of England in 1066 AD, was descended from Danish Vikings. Some
of the invading Normans were also descended from Danes and
Norwegians that were given lands in Normandy in the 8th century.
The Vikings used their famed “longships” to travel as far north as
Iceland and Greenland, east to Constantinople, and west to
Newfoundland. In 982 AD, Eric the Red discovered North America
when he landed on Baffin Island in Canada. Later, in 995 AD, his
son, Leif Ericson established Vinland, a settlement in Newfoundland.
Generally, the Norwegians expanded to the north and west to places
such as Iceland and Greenland, the Danes to England and France,
and the Swedes to the east. These nations, although distinct, were
similar in culture and language and only after the end of the Viking
Age did the separate kingdoms acquire distinct national identities.
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10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
1000 AD-1499 AD
Zheng He (1371-1433)
Between 1405 and 1433, the Ming government of China sponsored
a series of seven naval expeditions to impose imperial control over
trade and establish Chinese presence in the Indian Ocean basin.
Zheng He was placed as the admiral in control of the expeditions
and the huge fleet and armed forces that undertook them. His first
voyage consisted of a fleet of 317 ships holding almost 28,000
troops. Many of these ships were mammoth nine-masted "treasure
ships" which were by far the largest ships the world had ever seen at
the time.
On the first three voyages, Zheng He visited southeast Asia, India,
and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). The fourth expedition went to the Persian
Gulf and Arabia, and later expeditions ventured down the east
African coast as far as Malindi (Kenya).
Zheng He died during the treasure fleet's last voyage. His missions
showed impressive organizational capability and technological might
but they did not lead to significant trade. Chinese merchants
continued to trade in Japan and southeast Asia and Imperial officials
gave up any plans to maintain a Chinese presence in the Indian
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10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
Christopher Columbus (1451–1506)
Christopher Columbus was a navigator and explorer and one of the
first Europeans to explore the Americas after the Vikings. Though
not the first to reach the Americas from Europe, Columbus' voyages
led to general European awareness of the hemisphere and the
successful establishment of European cultures in the New World.
Columbus' voyages across the Atlantic Ocean began a European
effort at exploration and colonization of the Western Hemisphere.
While history places great significance on his first voyage of 1492 in
his ship, the Santa Maria, he did not actually reach the American
mainland until his third voyage in 1498. Instead, he made landfall on
an island in the Bahamas Archipelago while trying to find a sea route
to India.
Interesting!
Columbus’ mistaken belief that he
had reached India resulted in
misnaming native Americans as
“Indians”.
In modern times,
attempts have been made to
correct this by referring to
indigenous peoples as “Native
Americans”. As a result, terms
such as “Red Indians” and “Carib
Indians” are falling out of use.
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
Columbus was also probably not the earliest European explorer to
reach the Americas and there are accounts of European
transatlantic contact prior to 1492 (most notably by the Vikings).
Nevertheless, Columbus's voyage came at a critical time of growing
national imperialism and economic competition between developing
nation states seeking wealth from the establishment of trade routes
and colonies.
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10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519)
Leonardo Da Vinci observed and recorded the movements of waves
and currents. From his observations of fossils he deduced that the
sea levels must have been higher in the past.
Ferdinand Magellan (1480–1521)
Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese explorer who, while in the
service of the Spanish crown, tried to find a westward route to the
Spice Islands of Indonesia.
Magellan is the first European explorer to enter the Pacific Ocean
through what are now known as the “Straits of Magellan” at the
southern tip of South America on the first successful
circumnavigation of the Earth.
Magellan was killed in the Philippines in 1521 on his final westward
voyage. After Magellan’s death, the voyage was continued and
completed by Sebastian del Cano in 1522. It is interesting to note
that of the 270 crew members who set out with Magellan to
circumnavigate the Earth, only 18 completed the voyage and
returned to Spain – a testament to the hard conditions endured by
Magellan and his crew.
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10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
1500 AD-1899 AD
Sir Francis Drake (ca. 1540–1596)
Drake was an Elizabethan sailor, navigator, privateer, slave trader,
politician and the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. In
1588, he was a vice admiral in the fleet that defeated the Spanish
Armada. His exploits against the Spaniards were semi-legendary
and made him a hero to the English but not the Spaniards. To the
Spaniards, he was known as "El Draque" (from the old Spanish
meaning "the Dragon" derived from the Latin draco, meaning
“serpent”) for his actions. He died of dysentery off the coast of
Puerto Rico in 1596.
Gerardus Mercator (1569)
Gerardus Mercator constructs the Mercator projection map which
greatly improved accuracy for navigation – although it distorts the
relative size of the continents.
Admiral Sir Henry Morgan (ca. 1635-1688)
Admiral Sir Henry Morgan was a Welsh privateer, who made a name
in the Caribbean as a leader of buccaneers. He was among Wales's
most notorious and successful privateers.
Robert Boyle (1674)
Robert Boyle carries out pioneering oceanographic measurements
on temperature, salinity, pressure and depth.
Interesting!
Boyle’s Law states that for a
fixed amount of gas at constant
temperature, the pressure and
volume of the gas are inversely
proportional to one another.
This can be written:
P=1/V
Thus, under ideal conditions,
when you double the pressure
on a gas, the volume is halved.
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
Greenwich Meridian Established (1675)
The Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England is established and
the line of longitude is set at 0° (the Greenwich Meridian).
Edward Teach (ca. 1680–1718)
Edward Teach, better known as Blackbeard, was a notorious
English pirate in the Caribbean Sea and western Atlantic during the
early 18th century, a period referred to as the Golden Age of Piracy.
Blackbeard often fought, or simply showed himself wearing a big
feathered tricorn hat, and carrying several swords, knives, and
pistols. It was reported that he had hemp and lighted matches
woven into his black beard during battle. Blackbeard is the
archetype of the seafaring pirate.
Captain James Cook (1728 – 1779)
Captain James Cook is considered one of the world’s greatest
explorers and navigators. His three major voyages of discovery
provided the English with unprecedented information about the
Pacific Ocean and its island inhabitants. He also searched for the
great southern continent of “Terra Antarctica”. Although he did not
discover Antarctica, he was the first navigator to cross the Antarctic
Circle in 1773. His meticulous mapping skills pioneered the way for
the success of future explorations and his voyages lead to the
establishment of colonies throughout the Pacific. In 1771, Cook was
also the first ship commander to prevent scurvy by serving his crew
fruit and sauerkraut.
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Interesting!
Eating fresh fruit and vegetables
(especially citrus fruits, such as
limes) helps prevent scurvy. In
order to prevent scurvy killing his
crew on their long voyages,
Captain Cook ordered his crew
to eat limes. This is why the
English are sometimes
nicknamed “limeys’.
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
Horatio Nelson (1758-1805)
Vice Admiral Lord Nelson was famous for his leadership during the
Napoleonic Wars, most notably at the Battle of Trafalgar, a decisive
British sea victory in the war, during which he lost his life. Nelson
went against the conventional tactics of the time by sailing his fleet
through the enemy's lines rather than sailing broadside to each other
and firing cannon until one side retreated. Nelson was noted for his
ability to inspire and bring out the best in his men to the point that it
came to called the “Nelson Touch". His actions during these wars
meant that he was revered like few military figures have been
throughout British history. His memory lives on in numerous
monuments, most notably Nelson's Column, which stands in the
centre of Trafalgar Square in London.
Gulf Stream Ocean Charts Published (1769-1770)
Benjamin Franklin publishes the first ocean charts of the Gulf
Stream to help the passage of ships across the Atlantic Ocean.
Deep Water Life In the Arctic Ocean (1817-1818)
Sir John Ross discovers living organisms at a depth of 1.8 km (1.1
miles) near Baffin Island in the Arctic Ocean.
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10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
Charles Darwin was an English naturalist. After becoming an
eminent scientist in geology, he proposed and provided scientific
evidence for his theory that life evolved over time from a few
common ancestors through the process of natural selection. The
theory of natural selection came to be widely seen as the primary
explanation of the process of evolution in the 1930s and forms the
basis of modern evolutionary theory. In modified form, Darwin’s
scientific discovery remains the foundation of biology as it provides a
unifying logical explanation for the diversity of life.
Darwin five-year voyage on the Beagle to the Galapagos islands and
South America allowed him to collect and gather data that would
help him formulate the theory of evolution. Puzzled by the
geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils collected on the
voyage, Darwin investigated the transmutation of species and
conceived his theory of natural selection in 1838. Having seen
others attacked as heretics for such ideas, he confided only in his
closest friends and continued extensive research to meet anticipated
objections. His research was still in progress in 1858 when Alfred
Russell Wallace sent him an essay which described a similar theory
prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories.
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10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
1839-1843
Sir James Clark Ross (1800-1862) discovers living organisms at a
depth of 7 km (4.3 miles) in Antarctic waters.
1835-1910
Victor Hensen makes important discoveries on the nature of
plankton and pioneers techniques for plankton study.
1855
In 1855, Matthew Maury (1806-1873), an American, compiled wind
and current data to help shipping and published his findings in the
“Physical Geography of the Seas”. Maury becomes known as the
“Father of Oceanography”.
HMS Challenger (1872-1876)
The naturalist, Charles Wyville Thomson, conducts worldwide
scientific investigations aboard HMS Challenger. These are the first
serious attempts to study the bottom of the ocean and his voyages
collected and classified almost 5,000 new species of marine life.
1884
The Marine Biological Association is established in England to study
coastal ecology.
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10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
1892
The Norwegian polar explorer, Fridtjof Nansen (1861-1930) has the
ship “Fram” specially built to withstand ice-entrapment. The drift of
the ship confirms there is no Arctic continent.
1895-1898
The American, Joshua Slocum, becomes the first man to
circumnavigate the world single-handed in his yacht “Spray”.
1900 AD-TODAY
1902
The Danes set up the International Council for the Exploration of the
Seas (ICES) to investigate the oceanography and fisheries of the
North Sea.
1908
The Scripps Institute of Oceanography is established in the USA.
1912
The German scientist, Alfred Wegener, proposes his theory of
“continental drift”.
1920-1940
The British-led “Discovery Investigations” carry out extensive work in
many regions of the southern oceans. The results establish modern
Antarctic marine research.
Interesting!
The Arctic is a “frozen ocean”
– there is no Arctic continent.
In contrast, Antarctica is a
frozen continent.
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10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
1925-1927
A German expedition directed by George Wurst aboard the ship
“Meteor” makes detailed studies of the oceanography of the Atlantic
Ocean. Many modern oceanographic techniques were first used on
these voyages.
1930
The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute is established in Cape
Cod, Massachusetts, USA.
1934
William Beebe (1877-1962) was an American naturalist, explorer,
and author. His interest in deep-sea exploration led to the
development of the bathysphere, a spherical metal diving vessel,
with Otis Barton. In 1930, he descended 183 m (600 ft) off Nonsuch
Island in Bermuda, where in 1934 he made a record descent of 923
m (3,028 ft). Beebe made a total of 35 dives in the bathysphere.
1943
Jacques Cousteau (1910-1997) was a French naval officer, explorer,
ecologist, filmmaker, scientist, photographer and researcher. He codeveloped the aqua-lung and pioneered marine conservation, and is
widely regarded as the father of modern scuba diving.
Interesting!
Cousteau’s research ship
“Calypso” is named after a
nymph in Greek mythology who
kept Odysseus on her island for
seven years.
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
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Cousteau started skin diving with Frédéric Dumas and Philippe
Tailliez in 1938. In 1943, he and Émile Gagnan tried out the first
prototype aqua-lung. This made lengthy underwater exploration
possible for the first time, helped improve our knowledge of the
underwater world, and opened the door to many people being able
to dive.
Before the echolocation abilities of porpoises were discovered,
Cousteau suggested that they might exist. In his first book, the
Silent World (1953), he reported that a group of porpoises were
following his research vessel in the Straits of Gibraltar. Cousteau
moved the ship a few degrees off the optimal course to the center of
the strait and the porpoises followed for a few minutes before
diverging towards mid-channel again. It was evident they knew
where the optimal course lay. Cousteau correctly concluded that
cetaceans must use “sonar” to help them navigate.
1946
The International Whaling Commission (IWC) is set up under the
auspices of the United Nations to collect whaling information and to
regulate the shore-based whaling industry and pelagic whaling
fleets.
Interesting!
Sonar is the generic name of the
technology that is used to locate
objects underwater. Sonar
systems are of two basic types active and passive. In active
sonar, the system emits a pulse
of sound and then the operator
listens for echoes. In passive
sonar, the operator listens to
sounds emitted by the object
one is trying to locate. SONAR
is an acronym and means:
SOund Navigation And Ranging
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
1947
Thor Heyerdahl sails from Peru across the Pacific on the balsa raft
“Kon Tiki” partly to prove that Pacific islands could have been
reached by early sailors from South America. He campaigned to
make people aware that all of the oceans are linked and that what
we throw into the sea will find its way all over the world.
1958
The nuclear submarine, USS Nautilus, commanded by Cdr. William
Andersen, reaches the North Pole under the ice.
1960
The Swiss scientist, Auguste Piccard, developed the un-tethered
“bathyscaphe” “Trieste”.
Jacques Piccard and Donald Walsh
descend to the deepest part of the world’s oceans to a depth of
10,915 m (35,810 ft) in the Mariana Trench, off the island of Guam in
the Pacific Ocean.
1959-1965
The International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE) investigates the
oceanography of the Indian Ocean.
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10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
1966
The first supertanker disaster, Torrey Canyon, occurs off the coast
of southwest England. About 31,000,000 gallons of oil leaked from
the ship killing much of the marine life along the whole of the south
coast of Britain and Normandy shores of France. Since then other
major oil-related disasters in the marine environment include the
Amoco Cadiz, Exxon Valdez and oil spills in the Persian Gulf
resulting from the Gulf War.
1968-1975
The US National Science Foundation organizes the Deep Sea
Drilling Project (DSDP) to investigate the ocean crust. It confirms
the theory of “sea floor spreading”.
1970s
The United Nations initiates the International Decade of Ocean
Exploration (IDOE).
1972
The Geochemical Ocean Sections Study (GEOSECS) is organized
to study ocean chemistry and biochemical recycling of chemical
substances.
1977
Manned American submersibles discover remarkable deep sea
communities associated with hydrothermal vents along sea floor
ridges.
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10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
1978
The first “remote-sensing” oceanographic satellite (SEASAT-A) is
launched to study the oceans.
1980s
The Coordinated Ocean Research and Exploration Sections
program (CORES) is established by the UN to continue work from
the IDOE investigations of the 1970s.
Sylvia Earle (1935- )
Sylvia Earle is an American oceanographer. In 1979, she made an
open-ocean pressurized JIM suit dive setting a women's depth
record of 381 m (1,250 ft); she also holds the women's record for a
solo dive in a deep submersible (1,000 m, 3,280 ft). Earle has led
more than 400 expeditions worldwide and has over 7,000 hours
underwater in connection with her research. An expert on the
impact of oil spills, she was called upon to lead several research
trips during the Gulf War and following the spills of the ships, Exxon
Valdez and Mega Borg. She is the author of more than 125
publications on marine science and technology.
She has
participated in numerous television productions and given scientific,
technical, and general interest lectures in more than 60 countries.
Earle was named Time magazine's first "hero for the planet" in 1998.
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10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
Robert Ballard (1942- )
Robert Ballard (1942- ) is an oceanographer most noted for his work
in underwater archaeology. He is most famous for the discoveries of
the wrecks of the Titanic in 1985, the battleship Bismarck in 1989,
and the wreck of the aircraft carrier USS Yorktown in 1998. In 2002
he discovered the wreck of John F. Kennedy's PT-109.
REFERENCES & FURTHER READING
http://www.bluetooth.com/Bluetooth/ - Bluetooth
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Ballard - Robert Ballard
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/pirates/bbeard.html - Blackbeard
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques-Yves_Cousteau - Jacques Cousteau
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Columbus - Christopher Columbus
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/captaincook_01.shtml - Captain Cook
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/da_vinci_leonardo.shtml - Leonardo Da Vinci
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/drake_francis.shtml - Francis Drake
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvia_Earle - Sylvia Earle
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan - Magellan
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/magellan_ferdinand.shtml - Magellan
http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/hu/ergsinhu/aboutergs/torrey.html - Torrey Canyon
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking - Vikings
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/vikings/ - Vikings
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zheng_He - Zheng He
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sultan/explorers2.html - Zheng He
http://www.dosits.org/science/ssea/1a.htm - Sonar
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/ - Historic figures
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10.1.2 Final Frontier
The ocean is the last and largest unexplored place on Earth – less
than 5% of it has been explored. This is the great frontier for the next
generation’s explorers and researchers, where they will find great
opportunities for inquiry and investigation.
Part of the reason for this is simply the challenge of the enormous
pressures at depth. It has only really been in the last 100 years or
so that human technology has allowed us to begin to explore and
study the deep ocean.
Probably the first serious attempt to study the deep ocean was
undertaken by the crew members of HMS Challenger between 1872
and 1876. The scientists on board returned with over 4,000 new
species including the first ever anglerfish to be retrieved from the
depths.
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Ocean Literacy Principle 7(a)
The ocean is the last and largest
unexplored place on Earth—less
than 5% of it has been explored.
This is the great frontier for the next
generation’s explorers and
researchers, where they will find
great opportunities for inquiry and
investigation.
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
DIVING
Divers today typically fall into two main groups:
1. Recreational Scuba Diving – Normally To 45 m (150 ft)
Recreational scuba divers typically use a tank of compressed air to
dive the oceans. The use of compressed air restricts the maximum
depth and duration of a dive. A diver breathes compressed air
normally at depth and has no sense that anything is different.
However, changes are occurring within the body. Nitrogen is
entering the blood stream and begins to build up – the longer the
diver stays down, the more compressed nitrogen is in the
bloodstream. When a diver surfaces and the pressure decreases,
nitrogen begins to come out of the blood and small bubbles may
form. Normally, this is not a problem. However, if the diver has
stayed down too long, gone too deep, or has come up too fast, the
bubbling can cause serious problems. Bubbles can become lodged
in a critical area of the body (e.g. a diver’s brain or heart), and cause
‘embolisms’, ‘decompression sickness’ or “the bends”.
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10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
Divers typically wear a neoprene wetsuit or a dry suit to keep warm.
A wetsuit works by trapping a thin layer of water between the suit
and the diver’s skin. This thin layer of water is warmed by the body
and, because the wetsuit is form-fitting, water only passes through
slowly. Typically, a thick wetsuit will keep a diver comfortable to a
water temperature of 10°C (50°F). For colder waters, dry suits are
used. These are sealed so no water enters the suit. A diver wears
ordinary clothing under the suit and stays dry throughout the dive.
Dry suits are suitable for cold water temperatures of 0°C (32°F).
Both wetsuits and dry suits make a diver buoyant so divers carry
weight to keep them down. The ideal is for a diver to be “neutrally
buoyant” where he is neither going up or down. A diver must learn
and practice maintaining neutral buoyancy. Good buoyancy control
is particularly important when diving on reefs so that divers do not
crash into and break pieces of coral.
Interesting!
SCUBA is an acronym and means:
Self
Contained
Underwater
Breathing
Apparatus
Interesting!
Serious scuba diving injuries are
usually caused a diver staying
down too long, diving too deep or
surfacing too quickly.
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
2. Commercial & Research Diving – To 600 m (2,000 ft)
Commercial and research divers also utilize scuba diving equipment
but may use different quantities and combinations of breathing
gases to prolong the dive time and increase depth.
Divers that need to dive and work even deeper will sometimes use
pressurized NEWT or JIM suits.
NEWT suits are armored thick-walled suits that completely enclose
divers and resist water pressure. When underwater, the diver
breathes air at normal pressure as if inside a submarine. This
means a diver can go deeper without having to undergo
decompression. NEWT suits are used in oil exploration to depths of
365 m (1,200 ft). Joints in the arms and legs allow the diver to
move.
JIM suits are also armored thick-walled suits that completely enclose
a diver. Divers breathe air at normal atmospheric pressure. A JIM
suit protects a diver from the crushing water pressure to depths of
up to 600 m (2,000 ft) and is named after Jim Jarret who first wore
the suit in 1969.
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10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
SUBMARINES
The maximum depths of modern military submarines are classified
and accurate information is not easy to obtain. However, it seems
that the largest, deep-diving, military-style submarine is the nuclearpowered Soviet submarine K-278 Komsomolets which have hulls
made of titanium. This made them very expensive to build but they
were able to dive much deeper than the best American nuclear
submarines which are of high-grade steel. The Komsomolets is
estimated to be able to dive 1,300 m (4,265 ft). In contrast,
American Sea Wolf class submarines have an estimated crush
depth of about 730 m (2,400 ft). It is interesting to note that our
most powerful submarines only reach about one-tenth of the
maximum depth of the ocean at 11,000 m (7 miles) with most
operating shallower than 1,000 m (3,300 ft).
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10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
SUBMERSIBLES
The following outlines some of the most famous submersibles used
to study the deep ocean. Some, like Alvin, are almost household
names while others may be less familiar:
1. Beebe & Barton’s Bathysphere
In the 1930s, Dr. William Beebe became the first person to observe
deep sea animals in their natural habitat. The terrifying, fanged
creatures that we now recognize as deep sea fish were first viewed
by Beebe.
2. Johnson Sea Link
One of the most recent manned submersibles is the Johnson Sea
Link (JSL) built and operated by the Harbour Branch Oceanographic
Institute in Florida. It has a front sphere of plexiglass which limits it
to a depth of 1,000 m (3,300 ft) but it gives an observer an
unrestricted view of mid-water life.
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10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
3. Nautile
The Nautile is a French submersible that measures about 8 m (26 ft)
in length. It was used to recover objects from the seabed
surrounding the wreck of the Titanic. Only a submersible could dive
deep enough to reach the Titanic, 3,780 m (2.3 miles) down. The
Nautile is, essentially, a titanium sphere that is able to withstand the
immense pressure at these depths. Extra-thick curved plexiglass
portholes flatten on the dive from the deep water pressure. Nautile
can stay down for about 8 hours and has space for three people (a
pilot, co-pilot and an observer).
4. Alvin
In 1964, the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute launched Alvin, a
2 m (7 ft) titanium sphere able to hold a pilot and two observers.
Although it could not dive as deep as its predecessor, it was far
more mobile on reaching the bottom. Alvin has become the
workhorse of deep sea exploration and has gone on to discover the
hot vents and explore the wreck of the Titanic. It is still in active use
today. Alvin can reach a depth of about 4,500 m (14,764 ft) but
even this amazing craft reaches less than halfway to the bottom of
the ocean.
30
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
5. MIR
The MIR submersibles were designed and built by the Russians and
Finns. They can reach a maximum depth of 6,000 m (19,680 ft) thus
giving them access to up to 98% of the world's oceans. The MIR
submersibles are two of only five manned submersibles in the world
that can dive beyond 3,000m (9,840 feet). The pressure sphere is
constructed of special nickel-steel and is designed to withstand the
enormous pressures at these ocean depths. The MIR submersibles
have an overall length of 7.8 m (25 ft) and their cabin is 2.1 m (7 ft)
in diameter, accommodating one pilot and two passengers.
6. Trieste & Trieste II
In 1948, Auguste Piccard suspended a 10 tonne steel sphere from a
gas-filled float. This bathyscaphe was used to dive in the Atlantic
and Mediterranean as deep as 4,000 m (13,123 ft). In 1960, a
second-generation Trieste, carried Piccard’s son, Jacques and U.S.
Navy diver Don Walsh, to the bottom of the Challenger Deep – 11
km (7 miles) deep in the Marianas Trench. They remain the only
people to have reached this deepest spot in the ocean.
31
Interesting!
Numerous worldwide expeditions
have been conducted with the MIR
submersibles. The discovery of
hydrothermal vent life on the ocean
floor was one of the greatest
discoveries of the 20th century.
The MIR submersibles have visited
12 of these hydrothermal vent sites
both in the Pacific and Atlantic
Ocean. Three of these sites were
visited for the first time ever by the
MIR's.
Other voyages include the Titanic
and German battleship Bismarck. In
1989, MIR submersibles undertook
observations and encapsulation of
the Russian nuclear submarine
Komsomolets sunk in the
Norwegian Sea in 1,700 m (5,576
ft) of water. Work was also carried
out on the wreck of the Russian
submarine Kursk in the Barents
Sea in 2000 and the Japanese
submarine I-52 located in the
Atlantic Ocean.
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
REMOTE OPERATED VEHICLES (ROVs)
Manned deep sea exploration is dangerous because the great
pressures can crush submersibles. As a result, there has been
increased use of un-manned remote operated vehicles. Some
people believe that remotely operated vehicles carrying cameras
and a battery of sensors are a much safer and more efficient way to
study the deep sea, while others feel that real-life viewing is
essential.
REFERENCES & FURTHER READING
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/k19/disasters_detail2.html - Submarine maximum depth
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-deepest-depth-a-submarine-can-go.htm
http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ship/deep.htm - Submarine maximum depth
http://www.deepoceanexpeditions.com – MIR
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7530230.stm – MIR dive to Lake Baikal
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/savageseas/deep-side-journey.html – Trieste
32
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
33
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
10.1.3 Bathysphere
HISTORY
Our first view of the deep sea was probably through the exploration
work of two individuals named Otis Barton and William Beebe who
used a bathysphere to film the deep sea. To study the deep sea,
the bathysphere was hoisted by steel cable over the side of a ship
and lowered nearly half a mile down into the ocean – a testament to
the pioneering spirit and courage of these early explorers.
The bathysphere was originally designed and developed by Otis
Barton, a Columbia University engineer, while William Beebe (18771962) was a naturalist with the New York Zoological Society.
In the late 1920s and 1930s, these pioneers set early deep diving
records (923 m (3,028 ft) in August, 1934) and observed denizens of
the abyss that had never been seen before. In many ways, they
introduced us to a new world and initiated an era of oceanic
research and deep-sea exploration that continues to this day.
Today, the New York Zoological Society is known as the Wildlife
Conservation Society (WCS). The WCS manages the New York
urban wildlife parks (zoos and aquarium) among other functions and
Beebe is regarded as one of its founding fathers. The original
bathysphere used by Beebe and Barton can be seen at the New
34
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
FEATURES
The bathysphere is a hollow, steel ball, with thick walls constructed
to withstand the enormous pressures exerted upon it at great
depths. The bathysphere is tethered to a hoist by a steel cable and
solid rubber hose which carries electric wires that provide light and
communications to the divers.
The front of the bathysphere has three port holes with small, thick
glass windows for observation. In the back, a steel cover plate is
ordinarily bolted over the entry port, sealing the divers and their
equipment within. Today, a perspex plate is bolted over the port,
which allows people to see into the internal space, while protecting it
from litter and debris.
The bathysphere is just 145 cm (57 in) in diameter and is cramped
when two men, a light, telephone, oxygen tanks, chemicals (soda
lime to absorb carbon dioxide and calcium chloride to absorb
moisture) and air-circulation fans are packed within it.
REFERENCES & FURTHER READING
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/ice/sfeature/beebe.html
http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/barton.html
http://www.nyaquarium.org
35
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
10.1.4 Studying The Ocean
1. WHY STUDY THE OCEAN?
Understanding the ocean is more than a matter of curiosity.
Exploration, inquiry and study are required to better understand
ocean systems and processes.
Over the last 40 years, the use of ocean resources such as oil,
natural gas, minerals, food, water and oxygen, has increased
significantly. The future sustainability of ocean resources depends
on our understanding of those resources and their potential and
limitations.
2. NEW TECHNOLOGIES
New technologies, sensors and tools are expanding our ability to
explore the ocean. Ocean scientists are relying more and more on
satellites, drifters, buoys, sub-sea observatories and unmanned
submersibles.
(a) Ocean Instrumentation & Buoys
Sensory instruments that measure ocean conditions (e.g. air & sea
temperature, wind speed & direction, barometric pressure, ultraviolet
radiation, salinity, etc.) are placed in many parts of the world’s
oceans. These instruments monitor conditions and transmit data to
satellites.
36
Ocean Literacy Principle 7(b)
Understanding the ocean is more
than a matter of curiosity.
Exploration, inquiry and study are
required to better understand ocean
systems and processes.
Ocean Literacy Principle 7(c)
Over the last 40 years, use of
ocean resources has increased
significantly; therefore the future
sustainability of ocean resources
depends on our understanding of
those resources and their potential
and limitations.
Ocean Literacy Principle 7(d)
New technologies, sensors and
tools are expanding our ability to
explore the ocean. Ocean scientists
are relying more and more on
satellites, drifters, buoys, subsea
observatories and unmanned
submersibles.
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
(b) Satellites
Satellites can receive information from Earth-based sensors and
transmit the data back to laboratories, research and meteorological
stations around the world for further analysis and study.
Satellites can also keep track of surface temperature, currents and
other changing features of the ocean’s surface. They can also take
high resolution photographs of the ocean surface. Since the 1970s,
remote sensing from satellites has become an increasingly important
and valuable tool for studying the oceans.
(c) Computers & Modeling
Many ocean processes are extremely complex. In order to help us
understand these processes, mathematical models are used to
simplify the problem. Use of mathematical models is now an
essential part of ocean sciences. They help us understand the
complexity of the ocean and of its interaction with Earth’s climate.
They process observations and help describe the interactions
among systems.
Raw data is initially gathered by sensors and transmitted via satellite
to computer systems. Models are then run on these computer
systems to analyze the data and calculate results. Models are also
applied to predict events.
37
Ocean Literacy Principle 7(e)
Use of mathematical models is now
an essential part of ocean sciences.
Models help us understand the
complexity of the ocean and of its
interaction with Earth’s climate.
They process observations and
help describe the interactions
among systems.
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
3. NEW FIELDS
Ocean exploration is truly interdisciplinary. It requires new ways of
thinking and close collaboration among people in a variety of fields
including:
(a) Biology
A biologist is a scientist devoted to and producing results in biology
through the study of organisms. They study organisms and their
relationship to their environment or carry out research to discover
the underlying mechanisms that govern how organisms work.
(b) Geology
Geology is the study of the solid earth, its rocks and minerals.
Geologists understand how the dynamic forces which shape our
earth work and use this knowledge to predict their effect on humans.
Geologists are the “field hands” of earth science. Without groundbased observations to confirm information obtained from spacebased tools, we would have an incomplete or inaccurate picture of
our planet.
38
Ocean Literacy Principle 7(f)
Ocean exploration is truly
interdisciplinary. It requires close
collaboration among biologists,
chemists, climatologists, computer
programmers, engineers,
geologists, meteorologists, and
physicists, and new ways of
thinking
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
c) Oceanography
An oceanographer is a scientist who studies the physical and
biological aspects of the Earth’s oceans and seas. Oceanography
covers a wide range of topics including marine organisms and
ecosystem dynamics, ocean currents, waves and geophysical fluid
dynamics, plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor, and
fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within
the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect
multiple disciplines (including biology, chemistry, geology,
meteorology, and physics) that oceanographers blend to further
knowledge of the ocean and our understanding of processes within
it.
(d) Chemistry
Chemists study the composition of matter and its small-scale
properties, such as density and acidity, and describe the properties
they study at molecular level. Chemists measure substance
proportions, reaction rates and other chemical properties and use
this knowledge to learn the composition, structure, chemical
reactivity, and properties of unfamiliar substances, as well as to
reproduce and synthesize large quantities of useful naturally
occurring substances and create new artificial substances and
processes.
39
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
(e) Climatology
Climatology is the study of climate (weather conditions over a period
of time). Phenomena of interest include the atmospheric boundary
layer, circulation patterns, heat transfer, interactions between the
atmosphere and the oceans and land surface, and the chemical and
physical composition of the atmosphere.
(f) Computer Science
Computer programmers are able to write the sets of instructions that
tell computers the tasks the computer is to perform. Many
disciplines require computers to carry out a wide range of tasks from
simple calculations to detailed data analysis and statistics, to
imaging and complex modeling tasks.
(g) Engineering
Engineers use technology, mathematics, and scientific knowledge to
solve practical problems. Engineers apply established principles
drawn from mathematics and science in order to develop
economical solutions to technical problems.
Engineers use
computers extensively for the analysis and production of designs,
the simulation and testing of the operation of a machine, structure or
system, and the generation of part specifications. Many engineers
also use computers to monitor product quality and control process
efficiency.
40
10.1 PEOPLE AND THE OCEAN
(h) Meteorology
A person who studies the earth's atmosphere, especially in
connection with weather forecasting and weather-forming
processes.
(i) Physics
A physicist is a scientist who studies the properties and interactions
of matter and energy in all their forms (liquid, solid, gas, and
plasma).
REFERENCES & FURTHER READING
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologist - Biologists
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist - Chemists
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatologist - Climatologist
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer - Engineer
http://kids.earth.nasa.gov/archive/career/geologist.html - Geologists
http://www.mdbc.gov.au/subs/The_River/glossary.html - Meteorologists
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanographer - Oceanographer
http://scifiles.larc.nasa.gov/text/kids/Problem_Board/problems/light/glossary.html - Physicist
http://www.coral.noaa.gov/crews/ - NOAA Integrated Coral Observing Network (ICON)
41
10.2 CONSERVATION
10.2 CONSERVATION
42
10.2 CONSERVATION
10.2 CONSERVATION
10.2.1 Why We Need The Ocean
The ocean affects all human life. It supplies freshwater (most
rainwater comes from the ocean) and nearly all Earth’s oxygen. The
ocean moderates the Earth’s climate, influences our weather, and
affects human health.
From the ocean we get foods, medicines, and mineral and energy
resources. In addition, it provides jobs, supports our nation’s
economy, serves as a highway for transportation of goods and
people, and plays a role in national security.
The ocean is a source of inspiration, recreation, rejuvenation and
discovery. It is also an important element in the heritage of many
cultures.
1. Water
The ocean is responsible for supplies most of the world’s freshwater
with most rain originating from the ocean. Without freshwater, most
animal life would not exist.
2. Oxygen
Photosynthetic organisms in the ocean, such as blue-green bacteria,
phytoplankton, algae and plants, supply nearly all Earth’s oxygen.
Without them, most animal life would not exist.
43
Ocean Literacy Principle 6(a)
The ocean affects all human life. It
supplies freshwater (most rain
comes from the ocean) and nearly
all Earth’s oxygen. It moderates the
Earth’s climate, influences our
weather, and affects human health.
Ocean Literacy Principle 6(b)
From the ocean we get foods,
medicines, and mineral and energy
resources. In addition, it provides
jobs, supports our nation’s
economy, serves as a highway for
transportation of goods and people,
and plays a role in national security.
Ocean Literacy Principle 6(c)
The ocean is a source of
inspiration, recreation, rejuvenation
and discovery. It is also an
important element in the heritage of
many cultures.
10.2 CONSERVATION
3. Climate & Weather
Both the Earth’s climate and weather is driven by the ocean.
4. Food
The ocean provides us with food. For example, fish provide much of
the world’s protein food supply. Every year about 75 million tons of
fish are caught. Mackerel, pollack, herring and tuna are important
pelagic (open ocean) fish while popular demersal (bottom-living) fish
include cod, flounder, plaice, haddock, and crustaceans such as
crabs, lobsters and shrimp.
5. Medicines
The ocean also provides us with medicines. For example,
substantial research is focused upon the use of coral reefs and reef
organisms in the development of new drugs to treat cancer,
Alzheimer's and other diseases. Like rainforests, coral reefs also
have enormous potential for new medicines yet to be discovered.
Horseshoe crabs have several uses in medicine. An extract of
horseshoe crab blood – Limulus amoebocyte lysate (LAL) – is used
to ensure biomedical products (e.g. vaccines) are free of bacterial
contamination. Horseshoe crab chitin is used in manufacturing
chitin-coated suturing filament and wound dressing for burn victims.
44
10.2 CONSERVATION
6. Natural Energy Resources & Minerals
Seawater and the sea floor are rich in mineral deposits and other
natural energy resources (e.g. oil, gas).
People have extracted salt from seawater for thousands of years. In
hot countries, saltwater is pumped into shallow pools and allowed to
evaporate. The salt left behind can then be collected. In cold
climates, workers separate salt by boiling seawater. Other important
elements separated from seawater include bromine and magnesium.
Offshore sea-beds are a source of building materials such as shells
for making cement, sand and gravel. This is sucked up by powerful
pumps into barges for transportation. Worldwide, offshore dredging
produces about 1.2 billion tons of sand and gravel a year mainly for
concrete manufacture.
Other minerals include iron, tin, and
manganese which are widely needed in industry.
Much of the world’s oil and gas supply is now piped up from under
the floors of shallow seas fringing the continents. Semi-submersible
platforms floating in water 300 m (1,000 ft) deep can test drill
through 9,000 m (29,500 ft) of sea-bed rock. Steel or concrete
production platforms weighing up to 30,000 tons stand in 900 m
(3,000 ft) of water.
45
10.2 CONSERVATION
46
7. Jobs & Economy
Working with the ocean means that people have many different
types of jobs ranging from fishermen to researchers. The ocean
may also be an important source of income for local people from
tourism and eco-tourism. In some countries, the country’s economic
health is dependent upon the ocean.
8. Transportation & National Security
The ocean serves as a highway for transportation of goods and
people, and plays a role in national security. Oceans or seas also
protect nations. For example, one reason the U.K. has not been
successfully invaded since 1066 AD is due at least in part to its
geographical separation from the rest of Europe by the Channel.
More subtly, the ocean also protects nations and native species from
invasive species and diseases.
9. Recreation
The ocean is also a source of inspiration, recreation, rejuvenation
and discovery for many people. It is also an important element in
the heritage of many cultures. For example, tropical beaches and
coral reefs provide a place for recreational activities, such as
swimming, snorkeling, and scuba diving. Other activities include
fishing, boating, surfing and other water sports.
Interesting!
Lionfish are not native to the North
Atlantic or Caribbean but they can
now be found in Florida, Bahamas
and Cayman Islands. It seems that
several lionfish, which are popular
in home aquaria, were accidentally
released while they were being
transported from their native Indian
and Pacific Ocean home and they
were able to invade and
successfully colonize a new ocean.
10.2 CONSERVATION
10.2.2 Problems
Humans affect the ocean in a variety of ways. Laws, regulations
and resource management affect what is taken out and put into the
ocean. Human development and activity leads to pollution (point
source, non-point source, and noise pollution) and physical
modifications (changes to beaches, shores and rivers). In addition,
humans have removed most of the large vertebrates from the ocean.
The problems we have fall into three main categories:
1. POLLUTION – PUTTING HAZARDOUS MATERIALS INTO THE
OCEAN
“Pollution" is the negative effect from by-products of human
civilization that change the natural environment. Pollution can take
almost any form and there are many forms that can be hazardous
and unhealthy to life in the oceans including:
(a) Sewage
Improperly treated sewage is one major contributor to pollution in the
oceans. When sewage flows into the ocean, it causes nutrient
loading. Nutrient loading (eutrophication) is the presence of excess
nutrients in the water that plants use to grow and survive. With coral
reefs, for example, excessive nutrients can cause algae blooms
which can cloud the water blocking the corals from sunlight. Macroalgae can then very quickly overgrow and smother corals.
47
Ocean Literacy Principle 6(e)
Humans affect the ocean in a
variety of ways. Laws, regulations
and resource management affect
what is taken out and put into the
ocean. Human development and
activity leads to pollution (point
source, non-point source, and noise
pollution) and physical modifications
(changes to beaches, shores and
rivers). In addition, humans have
removed most of the large
vertebrates from the ocean.
10.2 CONSERVATION
(b) Runoff
Runoff from land can also cause nutrient loading. Humans use
fertilizers on farms and lawns. When it rains, these fertilizers are
washed into the nearby rivers and streams and eventually end up in
the ocean. The same fertilizers that will make lawns look lush and
beautiful will also cause algae blooms in the ocean. Heavy metals,
pesticides and many harmful chemicals enter the ocean through
runoff, all of which can have harmful effects on ocean life.
(c) Warm Water
Many industries create warm water as a by-product. Power plants
and desalination plants, for example, both release large quantities of
warm water. Warmer water temperatures can make coastal areas
uninhabitable for marine life.
(d) Fresh Water
Fresh water is not something commonly thought of as a pollutant.
However, fresh water can be deadly to sea life. For example, the
water level in the Florida Everglades is controlled by man-made
gates. When the gates are opened, a rush of fresh water is released
into the surrounding sea grass beds which can cause the sea grass
to die. Sea grass beds act as fish and coral nurseries. When sea
grass beds die, this habitat is eliminated and much of the sediment
that was held by the sea grass is loosened. The water becomes
48
10.2 CONSERVATION
49
(e) Noise
Ship engines, propellers and submarines that utilize sonar
make a lot of noise. This can disrupt mating rituals in sea
mammals such as whales and cause distress. For humans
who live in big cities or who have had to endure a pneumatic
drill or loud noises for extended periods of time will know
how aggravating these sounds can be and how much stress
they can engender.
(f) Plastic
Plastics are typically chains of carbon atoms (“polymers”)
with elements, such as chlorine, added to it. Plastic is
strong, durable and lightweight. It is an integral component
to modern life and has multiple uses that are critical to
human welfare. However, plastic is not biodegradable and
cannot easily be broken down and removed from the
environment. This has led to it becoming a very serious
pollutant.
Important!
It is easy to blame plastic for some of the
problems we have but one also must not
forget the immense benefits plastics have
brought us. Plastics have many important
uses in modern life, including packaging to
keep food fresh and medicines sterile.
Plastics are also used in the fabrication of
numerous technological tools and devices.
Scientists are working on alternatives to
plastics that are just as useful but are also
biodegradable. At the moment, however,
our main recourse is to reduce plastic
usage and increase reuse as much as
possible.
10.2 CONSERVATION
50
One area of the ocean which is particularly badly polluted by
plastic is the North Pacific Gyre. The North Pacific Gyre is a
swirling vortex of ocean currents comprising most of the
northern Pacific Ocean. The North Pacific Gyre has a
clockwise circular pattern but is relatively stationary at its
center.
The circular rotation of the gyre draws in waste material which
has led to the accumulation of flotsam and other debris in
huge floating patches of waste which has led to it being
named the “Great Pacific Garbage Patch” or the “Pacific Trash
Vortex”. Some sources have reported that this floating
continent of debris is more than 4,000 km (2,485 miles) wide.
A second trash vortex has also formed off the coast of Japan.
While “only” half the size of the one northeast of Hawaii, it is
still sizeable.
Rather than biodegrade, plastic disintegrates into smaller and
smaller pieces and can enter the ocean food chain. The small
particles resemble zooplankton, which can lead to them being
consumed by jellyfish and other animals. Transparent plastic
bags also resemble jellyfish and sea turtles can mistake them
for food. Many types of plastic may end up in the stomachs of
marine birds. Eventually, these animals die of starvation, their
Interesting!
In order to make plastics, we need a
source of carbon. Frequently, this source
is oil. Thus, oil is important not just as fuel
for cars but also to make plastics. It is also
why when you burn plastic, you get a large
amount of noxious black smoke which
comes from burning carbon.
10.2 CONSERVATION
2. PHYSICAL MODIFICATIONS – CHANGING THE OCEAN
(a) Development
Much of the world’s population lives in coastal areas. As a result, a
great deal of development has been carried out around the
continental coasts. This has resulted in many problems including
the removal and/or destruction of mangroves and turtle grass beds
which are important breeding grounds for young sea life. It has
already resulted in the removal of many breeding grounds for sea
turtles and sea mammals.
(b) Erosion
Coastal regions are susceptible to erosion and natural hazards (e.g.
tsunamis, hurricanes, cyclones, sea level change, and storm surges)
which are ordinarily buffered by sand on beaches. However,
dredging and the removal of mangroves and sea grass beds has
increased the level of erosion.
51
Ocean Literacy Principle 6(d)
Much of the world’s population lives
in coastal areas.
Ocean Literacy Principle 6(f)
Coastal regions are susceptible to
natural hazards (tsunamis,
hurricanes, cyclones, sea level
change, and storm surges).
10.2 CONSERVATION
3. OVER-EXPLOITATION – EXTRACTING TOO MUCH FROM
THE OCEAN
(a) Over-Fishing
Modern
fishing
techniques
are
extraordinarily
efficient.
Unfortunately, this is not necessarily a good thing. Their very
efficiency means that we take huge amounts of fish from the ocean.
Inshore, nets are thrown and traps set by hand to catch fish, crabs
and octopuses. Out at sea, sonar devices help fishing boats track
down large shoals and special nets or hooks catch fish living at
different depths. Trawlers hunt demersal species by dragging trawl
nets over the sea-bed. Purse seine nets are pulled shut to trap midwater species. Pelagic fish are either snared on long curtain-like
drift nets hung from buoys or caught on hooks attached to long lines.
Small craft may supply one big factory ship, where fish are gutted,
frozen and stored for several weeks. In one day, a single factory
ship can process more than 600 tons of fish. Methods such as
these mean that we have dramatically reduced the stock of many
species. For example, there is huge concern that we have overfished parts of the North Atlantic. Farming of certain species, such
as salmon, may help alleviate this problem but fish farms may have
their own environmental consequences.
52
10.2 CONSERVATION
(b) Wasteful Practices
Unfortunately, it is not just the fact that we take an enormous
number of fish from the ocean every year but also the manner in
which we take these fish which, in extreme cases, can be
considered criminally wasteful. For example, tens of thousands of
sharks, wahoo and dorado are often caught as a by-catch of tuna
fishing and simply discarded as waste. Another wasteful and brutal
practice which, thankfully, is being stopped is “finning”. Here, shark
fins, which are used in making soup and Eastern medicine, are cut
off the shark while the rest of the shark is simply thrown back into
the ocean to die.
REFERENCES & FURTHER READING
http://www.americanchemistry.com/s_plastics/sec_learning.asp?CID=1571&DID=5957 - Plastic
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic - Plastic
http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/01/06/eveningnews/main591770.shtml - North Pacific Gyre
http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/1103/1103_feature.html - Trash and the North Pacific Gyre
http://oceans.greenpeace.org/en/the-expedition/news/trashing-our-oceans/ocean_pollution_animation
North Pacific Gyre
http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0704/feature1/index.html – Fish Crisis 1
http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0704/feature2/index.html – Fish Crisis 2
http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0704/feature3/index.html – Fish Crisis 3
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7314240.stm - New ‘battle of Midway’ over plastic
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7316441.stm - Warning on plastic’s toxic threat
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7312777.stm - Dairy from the middle of nowhere
53
-
10.2 CONSERVATION
10.2.3 Better News
Fortunately, it is not all bad news. Many governments are now
aware of the need to protect coasts and offshore waters from
pollution and damage, and are taking steps to both clean up the
environment and prevent further damage. Cleanup for oil spills, for
example, include oil-dispersing chemicals and floating booms that
help prevent oil spreading into narrow bays. Other examples of
encouraging efforts include:
 In 1976, Mediterranean countries agreed on an action plan to
prevent sewage and chemicals from flowing into the Mediterranean.
 Asian countries have begun to conserve mangrove forests and
over 60 countries now protect reefs to some degree.
 Engineers are also discovering ways to save coasts from erosion.
In some places, they have found that soft sea defenses (artificial
beaches) are better than hard ones (concrete walls) at protecting
shores from wave erosion. For example, waves along the Florida
coast were gradually eating into the shore, threatening to wash away
Miami’s waterside hotels. Vacationers can now enjoy 25 km (15
miles) of artificial beach created from imported sand. By preventing
erosion, this beach restoration project helps to keep the sea at bay.
54
10.2 CONSERVATION
 Nations have begun to enforce laws to prevent the over-fishing of
wild species. Fishing protection officers stop trawlers from other
countries over-fishing their waters.
 Many governments now discourage the netting of unwanted wild
species and have created protected areas. By the mid-1990s, 1,200
marine protected areas existed worldwide.
In spite of these efforts, we must do more, and we must not
underplay the damage we are doing to the ocean. We still have time
to address these problems but, if we continue the way we are, the
prognosis is not good.
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10.2 CONSERVATION
10.2.4 Practical Ways You Can Help
Everyone is responsible for caring for the ocean. The ocean sustains
life on Earth and humans must live in ways that sustain the ocean.
Individual and collective actions are needed to effectively manage
ocean resources for all.
With the human population growing to 6.5 billion, the Earth has an
estimated 4.5 biologically productive acres per person. However,
the average consumer in the western world requires the equivalent
of 24 acres. This means we need more than five Earths to meet the
demand!
Clearly, we don’t have this and we must take action to reuse, reduce
and recycle Earth’s resources.
The problems we face may
sometime seem insurmountable and, indeed, some problems are
very difficult to solve. Nonetheless, there are still things that we can
do every day to help.
The following lists some practical ways you can help. They may not
all be appropriate (since some depend on where you live and what
you do) but there should be at least several simple things everyone
can do:
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Ocean Literacy Principle 6(g)
Everyone is responsible for caring
for the ocean. The ocean sustains
life on Earth and humans must live
in ways that sustain the ocean.
Individual and collective actions are
needed to effectively manage
ocean resources for all.
10.2 CONSERVATION
1. REDUCE YOUR FOOTPRINT
If every household (in the USA) replaced just three of its
incandescent light bulbs with energy-saving designs and used them
for 5 hours per day, it would reduce emissions of carbon dioxide by
23 million tonnes, reduce electricity demand by the equivalent of 11
coal-fired power stations, and save $1.8bn.
2. CHANGE YOUR HABITS
 Walk, bike, take public transport or carpool.
 Dry laundry on a line
 Eat eco-friendly seafood
 Use zoned air conditioning
 Install compact fluorescent lighting
 Keep air conditioning temperature a few degrees higher
 Unplug utilities (e.g. televisions, electric kettles)
 Eliminate lawn pesticides
 Reduce home water usage
 Inspire your friends to take similar actions
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Important!
We waste a lot! The key is to
reduce that waste by reusing and
recycling as much as we can. It is
not easy but a little extra care and
forethought goes a long way!
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10.2 CONSERVATION
3. FOR DIVERS, SNORKELERS & SWIMMERS
 Report any damage to the coral reef to your dive operator
 Practice buoyancy control in a pool before diving on a reef
 Maintain buoyancy control particularly when using cameras
 Hover above the reef and do not touch the sea floor
 Never touch marine life
 Observe briefings from local dive professionals
 Keep dive gauges tucked in
 Be aware of what your fins are kicking
 Don’t feed the fish
Interesting!
Water & Plastic Water Bottles
 Bottled water may cost as much
as $10 USD per gallon compared to
less than 1 penny per gallon for tap
water in many places
 It takes 3 litres of water to
produce a 1-liter bottle of water
 Worldwide, 2.7 million tons of
plastic are used each year to make
water bottles; in the US, less the
20% of these bottles are recycled.
 The total estimated energy need
to make, transport and dispose of
one bottle of water is equivalent to
filling the same bottle one-quarter
full of oil.
 An estimated 40% of bottled water
sold in the US is filtered tap water
 Worldwide, bottled water
consumption nearly doubled
between 1997 and 2005.
10.2 CONSERVATION
4. FOR HOUSEHOLDS
Reduce water consumption – go low flow
 Low flow faucets/taps, low flow shower heads, low flow toilets (place a brick in the cistern)
 When replacing old appliances purchase high efficiency, low flow washing machines, dishwashers.
 Build a grey water garden to water your lawn.
Reduce energy consumption – go solar; go fluorescent.
 Solar hot water systems may be an easy and moderate cost option.
 Solar electric panels can also be installed to reduce your reliance on electricity.
 Low energy high efficiency fluorescent light bulbs. These are excellent for providing good lighting at
a fraction of the consumption of old-fashioned incandescent bulbs. The International Energy Agency
calculates that 19% of global electricity generation is used for lighting, but old-style bulbs convert only
5% of their energy into light.
 Turn off unused lights and unplug electrical appliances
Reduce the amount of garbage you produce
 Learn how to compost your discarded food.
 Reduce the use of non-recyclable items.
 Take a shopping bag shopping instead of taking a new plastic bag from the shopkeeper each time.
 Reuse old plastic shopping bags whenever possible.
 Reuse plastic water bottles.
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10.2 CONSERVATION
5. FOR BOATERS
 Use only biodegradable cleaning agents
 Maintain your engine for peak efficiency
 When replacing engines purchase high efficiency four stroke
engines or other new technologies
 Use moorings or anchor in sand where permitted
 Never anchor on coral or in sea grass beds
 Pump sewage and grey water tanks into an appropriate shore
facility
 Never dump rubbish or anything into the ocean
6. FOR TRAVELLERS
 Choose a dive operator who is aware of the marine environment.
 Support environmentally responsible resorts and tour operators
that properly treat sewage and wastewater.
 Never eat local threatened sea food.
 Never purchase souvenirs made from coral or any threatened or
endangered marine species.
 Hang your towels to dry so you can reuse them and reduce water
and energy consumption.
 Take your plastic waste and batteries home with you if possible
(especially if you are visiting an island destination).
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10.2 CONSERVATION
61
7. FOR RESTAURANTS & HOTELS
Establish a waste management plan
 Eliminate paper and plastic products from your dining room
 Recycle linen, food, office paper, and packages
Establish an energy management plan
 Install timers on electrical equipment such as outdoor lighting, pools and Jacuzzi jets and even kitchen
equipment. Electrical items like TV’s left on ‘stand-by’ are still using electricity.
 Use solar walkway lighting
 Increase guest awareness of ways they can reduce energy waste, such as reusing their towels and
turning off the air conditioning when they leave their rooms.
Conserve water
 Monitor total water use on your property
 Water gardens at night
 Use low flow shower, faucet/tap, and toilet fixtures
 Build a grey water garden
Eliminate hazardous substances
 Substitute non-biodegradable toxic chemical cleaners for biodegradable non-toxic chemicals for your
kitchens, rooms, and boats.
Increase staff awareness
 Make sure your staff is aware of the local marine protection laws
 Establish an environmentally aware orientation for staff
Promote sustainable fisheries
 Don’t serve locally threatened fish & sea food species
 Be aware of globally threatened fish and sea food and provide information to your guests as to why you
10.2 CONSERVATION
8. EDUCATION
Learn about the ocean environment and some of the issues that it
faces. Learn to appreciate both sides of the argument and make
informed decisions about what to support.
9. GOVERNMENT & LAW
Support a Government that is aware of environmental issues and
takes action to promote conservation. The Government should also
enact laws that protect the environment and allow law enforcement
agencies to enforce the laws.
REFERENCES & FURTHER READING
http://www.amnh.org/water - Water and plastic bottles
http://www.earthday.net/footprint - Human footprint
http://www.ecologicalfootprint.org – Human footprint
http://www.blueocean.org/seafood - Advice on what seafood to eat
http://www.fishonline.org – Advice on what seafood to eat
http://www.reefresearch.org – Green Guide to the Cayman Islands, online publication, 2007
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10.3 ACTIVITIES
10.3 ACTIVITIES
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10.3 ACTIVITIES
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10.3 ACTIVITIES
10.3.1 History
CORE ACTIVITY
(a) Investigate the history of people and the ocean over the last 6000 years. Initially, divide the class into
four groups for example. Then assign a time period to each group as follows:
• PRE-1000 AD
• 1000 AD-1499 AD
• 1500 AD-1899 AD
• 1900 AD-TODAY
(b) Assign each student within a group, a specific historical figure or event to investigate. For example,
one student can research Vikings while another might investigate the life of Christopher Columbus.
Students should use books or the Web to do the research.
For example, see:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/
(c) The student should write up short notes about the subject on a piece of paper and draw a picture of
the subject or event.
(d) When all students have finished, each student within a group should glue his/her contribution onto the
group’s poster in chronological order.
10.3 ACTIVITIES
(e) Put up all the posters along the classroom wall to get an overall timeline.
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10.3 ACTIVITIES
10.3.2 Final Frontier
CORE ACTIVITY
(a) Label the scuba diver’s equipment
• Mask
• Boots
• Fins
• Tank or cylinder
• Suit
• Regulator
• Buoyancy Compensation Device (BCD)
• Weight Belt
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10.3 ACTIVITIES
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10.3 ACTIVITIES
(b) What does SCUBA stand for?
(c) What is the difference between a “mask” and “goggles”?
(d) What is the purpose of a dive suit?
(e) What does a scuba diver breathe?
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10.3 ACTIVITIES
ANSWERS
(a) Label the scuba diver’s equipment
• Mask
• Boots
• Fins
• Tank or cylinder
• Suit
• Regulator
• Buoyancy Compensation Device (BCD)
• Weight Belt
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10.3 ACTIVITIES
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10.3 ACTIVITIES
(b) What does SCUBA stand for?
Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus
(c) What is the difference between a “mask” and “goggles”?
A mask covers the eyes and nose whereas a pair of goggles just covers the eyes
(d) What is the purpose of a dive suit?
To keep the diver warm and to protect him/her against minor scrapes
(e) What does a scuba diver breathe?
A scuba diver breathes compressed air (not oxygen)
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10.3 ACTIVITIES
72
10.3.3 Studying The Ocean – New Technologies
EXTENDED ACTIVITY
Use satellite maps to study the Earth. . Go to http://maps.google.com/. Set the “street map” and
“satellite” view.
(a) Find your school building using the street map and satellite view?
(b) Which ocean (or sea) is nearest you?
10.3 ACTIVITIES
73
(c) Use the controls on your screen to pan and zoom in and out looking at places of interest. For each
place in the following list, find and note the nearest ocean(s) and/or sea(s):
 Greenland
 Tierra Del Fuego
 Great Barrier Reef, Australia
 Hawaii, USA
 San Francisco, USA
 New York City, USA
 London, England
 Manaus, Brazil
 Mumbai, India
 Cayman Islands
 Hong Kong
 Antarctic Peninsula
10.3 ACTIVITIES
74
ANSWERS
Use satellite maps to study the Earth. . Go to http://maps.google.com/. Set the “street map” and
“satellite” view.
(a) Find your school building using the street map and satellite view?
N/A
(b) Which ocean (or sea) is nearest you?
N/A
10.3 ACTIVITIES
75
(c) Use the controls on your screen to pan and zoom in and out looking at places of interest. For each
place in the following list, find and note the nearest ocean(s) and/or sea(s):
• Greenland – Arctic Ocean and Atlantic Ocean
• Tierra Del Fuego – Atlantic Ocean (also very close to Pacific and Antarctic Oceans)
• Great Barrier Reef, Australia – Pacific Ocean
• Hawaii, USA – Pacific Ocean
• San Francisco, USA – Pacific Ocean
• New York City, USA – Atlantic Ocean
• London, England – Atlantic Ocean
• Manaus, Brazil – Atlantic Ocean
• Mumbai, India – Indian Ocean
• Cayman Islands – Caribbean Sea
• Hong Kong – South China Sea
• Antarctic Peninsula – Antarctic Ocean
10.3 ACTIVITIES
76
10.3.4 Studying The Ocean – New Fields
EXTENDED ACTIVITY
Ask your students to choose an ocean career they might be interested in pursuing and write a report as if
they were such a professional. Choose one of the following:
(a) Imagine you are a marine biologist. Write a report on an animal that interests you the most. Be sure
to include details and draw pictures to illustrate the animal.
• What kind of animal is it (invertebrate or vertebrate, crustacean, mollusc, fish, mammal, etc.)?
• What does the animal look like (length, height, weight, etc).
• What does it eat?
• How does it reproduce?
• How does it breathe?
• Other interesting things about the animal
10.3 ACTIVITIES
77
(b) Imagine you are a marine geologist. Write a report about a part of the sea that interests you the
most. Draw pictures to illustrate your topic. For example:
• Ocean trenches
• Cold seeps
• Hydrothermal vents
• Underwater volcanoes
• Tectonic movement
• Draw pictures to illustrate your topic
(c) Imagine you are a oceanographer. Write a report about a part of the sea that interests you the most.
Draw pictures to illustrate your topic. For example:
• Tsunamis & Waves
• Cold & Warm Currents
• Waves
• Tides
• Climate
• Weather
• El Niño & La Niña
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10.3 ACTIVITIES
10.3.5 Write A Sea Story
CORE ACTIVITY
Write a story about the sea. Include three (or more) of the phrases listed below in your story:
 Above Board
 As the Crow Flies
 At Loggerheads
 Avast
 Back and Fill
 Bear Down
 Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea
 Bitter End
 Buoyed Up
 By and Large
 Chock-a-Block
 Cut and Run
 Cut of His Jib
 Over the Barrel
 Overbearing
 Overhaul
 Overreach
 Overwhelm
 Piece of Eight
 Pipe Down
 Pooped
 Press Into Service
 Rummage Sale
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10.3 ACTIVITIES
 Davy Jones’ Locker
 Dressing Down
 First Rate
 Fly-by-Night
 Footloose
 Garbled
 Give (someone) a Wide Berth
 Gone By the Board
 Groggy
 Leeway
 Let the Cat Out of the Bag
 No Great Shakes
 No Room to Swing a Cat
 Scuttlebutt
 Shiver me timbers
 Skyscraper
 Son of a Gun
 Square Meal
 Start Over with a Clean Slate
 Taken Aback
 Taking the wind out of his sails
 The Devil to Pay
 Three Sheets to the Wind
 To Know the Ropes
 Toe the Line
 Touch and Go
 Turn a blind eye
 Under the Weather
 Windfall
10.3 ACTIVITIES
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If you are not sure what these phrases mean, look them up on the Web using the following sites:
http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/nautical-phrases.html - Nautical phrases
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_nautical_terms - Nautical terms
http://www.sailorschoice.com/Terms/scterms.htm - Nautical terms
http://www.fortogden.com/nauticalterms.html - Nautical origins of common expressions
Examples:
(a) The pirate captain squinted into his telescope to see how far away the treasure ship lay. “About 10
miles as the crow flies”, he thought to himself. The Spanish treasure ship was laden with gold, jewels,
and pieces of eight…
(b) I started out as a midshipman in His Majesty’s Navy at the age of 14 and learned the ropes through
a sailor named Jack Hanson. He used to work the top sails and skyscrapers which was a task reserved
only for the very best sailors.
(c) The first-mate shouted at the deck-hand “Avast, there! This is a first-rate ship and I’ll not have you
take us to Davy Jones Locker through your incompetence”…
10.3 ACTIVITIES
10.3.6 Conservation
CORE ACTIVITY
(a) List some of the reasons we need the ocean
(b) What are some of the problems we are causing?
(c) Name some forms of pollution?
(d) What are some of the ways you can help save the ocean?
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10.3 ACTIVITIES
ANSWERS
(a) List some of the reasons we need the ocean
• Water – most rainwater comes from the ocean
• Oxygen – nearly all Earth’s oxygen comes from ocean blue-green bacteria, algae and plants
• Climate & Weather – moderates climate and influences weather
• Food – e.g. fish, crustaceans
• Medicines – e.g. LAL from horseshoe crab blood
• Natural Energy Resources & Minerals – e.g. oil, gas, salt, bromine, magnesium
• Jobs & Economy – e.g. fishermen, researchers
• Transportation & National Security – e.g. transport of goods
• Recreation – e.g. swimming, snorkeling, boating, surfing
(b) What are some of the problems we are causing?
• Pollution – putting hazardous materials into the ocean
• Physical modifications – changing the ocean through development and erosion
• Over-exploitation – extracting too much from the ocean – over-fishing, poor practices, etc.
(c) Name some forms of pollution?
• Sewage
• Runoff
• Warm Water
• Fresh Water
• Plastic
• Noise
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10.3 ACTIVITIES
(d) What are some of the ways you can help save the ocean?
You can reduce, reuse and recycle items:
1. Reduce your “footprint”
• Replace incandescent light bulbs with energy-saving designs.
2. Change your habits
• Walk, bike, take public transport or carpool.
• Dry laundry on a line
• Eat eco-friendly seafood
• Use zoned air conditioning
• Install compact fluorescent lighting
• Keep air conditioning temperature a few degrees higher
• Unplug utilities (e.g. televisions, electric kettles)
•Eliminate lawn pesticides
• Reduce home water usage
• Inspire your friends to take similar actions
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10.3 ACTIVITIES
3. Divers, Snorkelers & Swimmers
• Report any damage to the coral reef to your dive operator
• Practice buoyancy control in a pool before diving on a reef
• Maintain buoyancy control particularly when using cameras
• Hover above the reef and do not touch the sea floor
• Never touch marine life
• Observe briefings from local dive professionals
• Keep dive gauges tucked in
• Be aware of what your fins are kicking
• Don’t feed the fish
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10.3 ACTIVITIES
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10.3.7 Reducing Your Ecological Footprint
CORE ACTIVITY
(a) Several organizations have developed a simple and fun online calculator for you to estimate how
much land and water you need to support your current consumption and lifestyle. Take the quiz from
one of the following and see what your “ecological footprint” is.
http://www.myfootprint.org/en/visitor_information/
http://www.earthday.net/footprint
(b) What are some ways of reducing your “ecological footprint”?
(c) Look around the classroom. How many items of plastic can you find?
(d) Can you think of alternative substances you could make the items out of?
(e) How might you dispose of some of the plastic items?
10.3 ACTIVITIES
86
ANSWERS
(a) Several organizations have developed a simple and fun online calculator for you to estimate how
much land and water you need to support your current consumption and lifestyle. Take the quiz from
one of the following and see what your ecological footprint is.
http://www.myfootprint.org/en/visitor_information/
http://www.earthday.net/footprint
(b) What are some ways of reducing your ecological footprint?
• Replace incandescent light bulbs with energy-saving designs
• Walk, bike, take public transport or carpool
• Dry laundry on a line
• Use zoned air conditioning
• Install compact fluorescent lighting
• Keep air conditioning temperature a few degrees higher
• Unplug utilities (e.g. televisions, electric kettles)
• Reduce home water usage
10.3 ACTIVITIES
(c) Look around the classroom. How many items of plastic can you find?
• Electric plug
• Wires (covered in plastic)
• Computer
• Pen
• Watch
• Clothes (e.g. clothes made of artificial fibres)
• Desk
• Chairs
• Binders
• Water bottles
• Lunch boxes
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10.3 ACTIVITIES
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(d) Can you think of alternative substances you could make the items out of?
Some items can be made using natural materials. For example, a desk and chairs might be made of
wood or bamboo. Clothes may be cotton or silk as opposed to synthetic materials. Electric wires used to
be covered in rubber. Water bottles were made of glass (not plastic). However, it is very difficult to
make many items without using plastic.
(e) How might you dispose of some of these plastic items?
Organic items like food, cotton, silk, and paper can be degraded by microorganisms – they are said to be
“biodegradable”. However, it is very difficult to dispose of certain items such as the plastic and metallic
components in computers. Scientists are currently working on ways to make plastics biodegradable but
until there is a solution we have to be careful with our use of plastics because they are vital in many
situations but they are also very difficult to dispose of. Some simple things you can do:
• Reduce the use of non-recyclable items.
• Take a shopping bag shopping with you to reduce wasting grocery bags.
• Reuse old plastic shopping bags where possible.
• Reuse plastic water bottles (e.g. use one; wash thoroughly after use; use it multiple times).