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Transcript
The Challenges of Making a Living Structural Organization • Most plants and animals have cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems • A plant or animal body becomes structurally organized during growth and development – Growth: cells increase in number, size, volume – Development: specialized tissues, organs, and organ systems form • Animals have “control centers” to regulate body function in the short-term, whereas plants have decentralized control over function What are some of the challenges associated with large body size? If all somatic cells in an organism have the same genetic information, how can cells specialize into tissues & organs? Homeostasis = the maintenance of a dynamic equilibrium • Plant and animal cells must be bathed in a relatively stable fluid that delivers nutrients and carries away metabolic wastes in order to stay alive – Why might an organism’s internal environment change? – Why is a stable internal environment important to an organism’s survival? Describe an example. p. 7 Maintaining Homeostasis What are the common challenges? • O2 & CO2 gas exchange • water-solute balance • signaling molecules to guide events on the cellular level • live within specific habitats, and respond to environmental threats • Behavioral adaptations – e.g. thermoregulation • Cellular adaptations – e.g. aclimatization – intercellular communication • Genetic adaptations – new allele combinations – mutations Describe an example of a mechanism to adapt to short term changes in the environment. Is your example a behavioral or cellular adaptation? Where does it occur, and how long does it last? Describe the scope of a genetic adaptation in terms of the number of individuals affected, and the time period over which it occurs. Zone of Tolerance Stable operating conditions in the internal environment (in the blood and tissue fluid) is maintained by the coordinated activities of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems High # individuals Optimum range Stress Stress Intolerance Intolerance homeostasis Low Internal Condition High Behavioral Adaptations Cellular Adaptations Genetic Adaptations How do genetically derived adaptive traits within a population come about? – Crossing Over – Independent assortment – Fertilization – New alleles (gene mutations) Describe how a genome might be changed by these 4 mechanisms. How might the gene pool be altered when these sources of variation arise? Gene Pool What is a gene pool? What is the relationship between a gene pool and a popluation? What might cause changes in the gene pool? Is this evolution? http://www.brooklyn.cuny.edu/bc/ahp/LAD/C21/C21_GenePool.html Gene Mutation • Change in the structure of DNA in gametes. Amino acid redundancy allows for fewer mutations Gene Mutation • Rare! – 1 gamete in 100,0001,000,000 • Neutral (why?) • Deleterious – Changes the shape of a protein – Stops synthesis of a protein too early • Advantageous What will likely happen to deleterious mutations in a population? Charles Darwin’s radical idea (…or was it?) • Meticulous observation • Considered numerous possible relationships, especially b/w animals and their environment • 2 main points: – Species evolved from ancestral species – Natural selection was the mechanism for this evolutionary change On the Origin of Species • Descent with modification (aka evolution) is the explanation for life’s unity and diversity – all organisms are related via a common ancestor – adaptations developed as descendents from a common ancestor moved into new habitats (or the habitat changed) Darwin’s metaphor for the history of life was a branching tree. Observation 1 • Species have a great potential for reproduction • Populations would increase exponentially if all individuals survived and reproduced Observation 2 • Populations tend to remain stable over time, except for mild seasonal fluctuations and occasional severe fluctuations Moose population on island in Lake Superior Observation 3 • Natural resources are limited, i.e. there is a struggle for existence Observation 4 • No two individuals are exactly the same; rather, every population displays enormous variability. Observation 5 • Much of this variation is heritable • However, Darwin did not know the mechanism of inheritance Darwin’s four postulates 1. Individuals within species are variable. 2. Some of these variations are passed onto offspring. 3. In every generation, more offspring are produced than can survive. 4. Survival and reproduction are not random. The individuals that survive and go on to reproduce, are the ones with the most favorable variations. Other Evidence for Evolution • Organisms are adapted to their environments • Camouflage is an example of evolutionary adaptation A floral mantid (insect pollinator) Other evidence • Examples of “natural” selection over short periods of time Is it fair to describe this as natural selection? How is this similar to antibiotic resistance among pathogenic bacteria? Evolution of resistance to insecticides in insect populations Other evidence • Selective breeding & artificial selection Vegetables developed by humans from wild mustard plant through selective breeding Other evidence • Homologous structures Forearm bones in mammals Other evidence Ribosomal structure (large subunit of bacterial ribosome) • Molecular “record” – molecular homologies Other evidence • Fossil record Fossil Trilobites Elephant evolution based on fossils Alterations to the Gene Pool: Gene flow • As individuals or gametes flow between populations, they become more similar. The reverse is also true. Alterations to the Gene Pool: Genetic Drift • With low population size, alleles (i.e. traits) can disappear How might this happen? Has evolution occurred? Is the population more fit? Alterations to the Gene Pool: Directional Selection Deaths due to pesticides decreased over time. What determines which alleles are selected? Alterations to the Gene Pool: Stabilizing Selection Previously, those babies that were too small did not survive and those that were too big had complications. Does this imply that birth weight is an inherited trait? Alterations to the Gene Pool: Disruptive Selection Large billed individuals crack hard seeds. Small billed individuals crack soft seeds. Intermediate forms do not crack either seeds well.