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• SB1: Students will analyze the nature of the relationships between structures and functions in living cells. PROKARYOTIC CELLS • Lack a membrane-bound nucleus. • Examples include mostly bacteria. • Come in three different shapes: rod-shaped, spherical, and spiral. Bacillus (rod-shaped) Cocci (spherical) Spirilla (spiral) Organelles of a Prokaryotic Cell: • No significant organelles. • No true nucleus. • Smaller Eukaryotic • “True nucleus.” • Contain organelles. • 2 Main Types: Plant and Animal cells ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL Organelles of Eukaryotic Cells • Nucleus – “brain”; contains DNA of cell. • Ribosomes – “protein factory”; create protein for the cell. • Mitochondria – “powerhouse”; converts carbs for energy. • Chloroplasts – “farmers”; produce food through photosynthesis. ONLY IN PLANT CELLS. Organelles in Eukaryotic Cells • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – “intracellular highway”; moves proteins to be sent out into the cell. • Golgi Apparatus – “Fed-Ex/UPS”; works closely with ER to send out appropriate amount of protein. • Vacuole – “storage center”; stores energy and water; BIGGER in PLANT CELLS, SMALLER in ANIMAL CELLS. • Microfilaments – “muscles”; help support the structure of the cell • Microtubules – also “bones”; work closely with microfilaments Questions What are catalysts? What are enzymes? Enzymes are proteins that act and function like catalysts. Catalysts are substances that speed up or slow down reactions in the body. Catalyst Enzyme The Four Major Macromolecules • Carbohydrates -Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1. -Used to store energy and provide support (i.e. cell walls) • Proteins -Involved in many cellular functions. -Muscles and hair are made up of proteins. -Enzymes are proteins. -Amino acids make up proteins. The Four Major Macromolecules (Cont.) • Lipids – Store large amounts of energy – Cannot be dissolved in water – Helps support cell membranes • Nucleic Acid – Stores the cell's hereditary information – Makes up DNA – Also makes up RNA, which is used in many cell functions LIPID Questions 1. What are carbohydrates used for? Answer storing energy 2. What macromolecule makes up muscles? Answer protein 3. ______ store large amounts of energy. Answer lipids 4. DNA is made up of which macromolecule? Answer nucleic acid Water is very important for all forms of life. An example of how water is used is the process of osmosis and diffusion. What is diffusion? What is osmosis? • Osmosis--the movement of water molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Water goes from an area with a lot of water to an area with not very much. An example of this is water going in and out of plant cells. • Diffusion--form of passive transport where molecules spread out across membranes. • SB4: Students will assess the dependence of all organisms on one another and the flow of energy and matter within their ecosystems. • • • • • Questions What is Primary Succession? What are some examples of Primary Succession? What is Secondary Succession? What are some examples of Secondary Succession? What is Climax Control? • Primary Succession--a type of ecological succession of plant life; occurs in an environment in which is missing vegetation and usually lacking soil. • An example of primary succession is a lava flow. Due to the continual flow there is no plant life and hardly any soil. • Secondary Succession--a type of ecological succession of plant life. • As opposed to primary succession, secondary succession is a process started by an event that reduces an already established ecosystem. • Examples are forest fires, earthquakes, hurricanes, and harvesting. • Climax Community--ecological term for a biological community of plants and animals through the process of ecological succession--the development of vegetation in an area over time-has reached a steady state. This equilibrium occurs because the climax community is composed of species best adapted to average conditions in that area. The term is sometimes also applied in soil development. Greenhouse Effect • The Greenhouse effect is the creation of CO2 by the burning of fossil fuels and having the CO2 trapped in the atmosphere causes the ozone layer to heat up melting the polar caps. Effects caused by humans are pesticides, biological magnification, and pollution. By using alternate forms of energy such as hydroelectric energy, green energy, wind power, geothermal energy and other types of energy will help to cut on down on the burning of fossil fuels and delay the effects of global warming. Pesticides • Pesticides have been found to pollute virtually every lake, river and stream in the United States, according to the US Geological Survey. Pesticide runoff has been found to be highly lethal to amphibians, according to a recent study by the University of Pittsburgh. The use of pesticides also decreases biodiversity in the soil. Not using them results in higher soil quality with the additional effect that more life in the soil allows for higher water retention. Pollution • Pollution is the release of environmental contaminants. Biomagnification is the increase in concentration of an element or compound, such as the pesticide DDT, that occurs in a food chain as a consequence of the lack of, or very slow, excretion/degradation of the substance. DDT is found in many pesticides and is found to be increasing in nature instead of decomposing. DDT is responsible for many harmful effects on the environment such as the pollution of rivers and lakes and can cause the deaths of organisms that may come in contact with the polluted waters. The major forms of pollution include: • Air pollution, the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere. Common examples include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor vehicles. Ground-Level Ozone and smog are created as nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Major Types of Pollution cont’d. • Water pollution via surface runoff and leaching to groundwater. • Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground storage tank leakage. Among the most significant soil contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy metals, MTBE, herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Major Types of Pollution cont’d • Radioactive contamination--added in the wake of 20th-century discoveries in atomic physics. (See alpha emitters and actinides in the environment.) • Noise pollution--encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise as well as high-intensity sonar. Major Types of Pollution cont’d. • Light pollution includes light trespassing, overillumination and astronomical interference. • Visual pollution refers to the presence of overhead power lines, motorway billboards, scarred landforms (as from strip mining), open storage of trash or municipal solid waste. • Thermal Pollution is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human influence. Environment-Friendly Energy Sources • Hydroelectricity is electricity obtained from water power. Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator, although less common variations use water's kinetic energy or dammed sources, such as tidal power. Hydroelectricity is a renewable energy source. Environment-Friendly Energy Sources cont’d. • Most modern wind power is generated in the form of electricity by converting the rotation of turbine blades into electrical current by means of an electrical generator. In windmills (a much older technology) wind energy is used to turn mechanical machinery to do physical work, like crushing grain or pumping water. Wind power is used in large-scale wind farms for national electrical grids as well as in small individual turbines for providing electricity to rural residences or grid-isolated locations. Wind energy is ample, renewable, widely distributed, clean, and mitigates the greenhouse effect if used to replace fossil-fuel-derived electricity. Energy Sources cont’d. • Geothermal power is the use of geothermal heat to generate electricity. It is often referred to as a form of renewable energy, but because the heat at any location can eventually be depleted, it is by definition not strictly renewable. Geothermal comes from the Greek words geo, meaning earth, and therme, meaning heat. Geothermal literally means “earth heat.” Tropism • A tropism is a biological phenomenon, indicating growth or turning movement of a biological organism (usually a plant) in response to an environmental stimulus. In tropisms, this response is dependent on the direction of the stimulus (as opposed to nastic movements which are non-directional responses). Viruses and other pathogens also affect what is called "host tropism" or "cell tropism" in which case tropism refers to the way in which different viruses/pathogens have evolved to preferentially target specific host species, or specific cell types within those species. The word tropism comes from the Greek trope ("to turn" or "to change"). Tropisms are usually named for the stimulus involved (for example, a phototropism is a reaction to light) and may be either positive (towards the stimulus) or negative (away from the stimulus). • Tropisms are typically associated with plants (although not necessarily restricted to them). Where an organism is capable of directed physical movement (motility), movement or activity in response to a specific stimulus is more likely to be regarded by behaviorists as a taxis (directional response) or a kinesis (non-directional response). SB5. Students will evaluate the role of natural selection in the development of the theory of evolution. 1744 August 01: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was born. Lamark advocated a theory of evolution which included the idea that traits could be acquired and then passed along to 1797 November 14: Geologist Sir Charles Lyell was born. offspring. 1809 February 12: Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, England. 1823 January 08: Alfred Russel Wallace was born. 1829 December 28: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck died. 1831 April 26: Charles Darwin graduated from Christ's College, Cambridge with a B.A. degree. 1831 September 05: Charles Darwin had his first interview with Fitzroy, Captain of the HMS Beagle, in hopes of becoming the ship's naturalist. Fitzroy very nearly rejected Darwin - because of the shape of his nose. 1834 February 16: Ernst Haeckel was born in Potsdam, Germany. Haeckel was an influential zoologist whose work on evolution served to inspire some of the racist theories of the Nazis. 1831 December 27: Employed as ship's naturalist, Charles Darwin left England aboard The Beagle. 1835 September 15: The HMS Beagle, with Charles Darwin aboard, finally reaches Galapagos Islands. 1836 October 02: Darwin returned to England after a fiveyear voyage on the Beagle. 1857 April 18: Clarence Darrow was born. 1858 June 18: Charles Darwin received a monograph from Alfred Russel Wallace which essentially summarized Darwin's own theories on evolution, thus inspiring him to publish his work sooner than he planned. 1860 January 07: Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection went into its second edition , 3,000 copies. 1879 November 19: Charles Darwin published a book about his grandfather, entitled Life of Erasmus Darwin. 1858 July 20: Charles Darwin began writing his seminal book, The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. 1860 June 30: Thomas Henry Huxley and Bishop Samuel Wilberforce of the Church of England engaged in their famous debate on Darwin's theory of evolution. 1882 Charles Darwin dies and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 1900 August 03: John T. Scopes was born. Scopes became famous in a trial which challenged Tennessee's law against teaching evolution. 1925 March 13: Tennessee Governor Austin Peay signed into law a prohibition against the teaching of evolution in public schools. Later that year John Scopes would violate the law, leading to the infamous Scopes Monkey Trial. Explain how fossil and biochemical evidence support the theory. Fossil Evidence • It is possible to find out how a particular group of organisms evolved by arranging its fossil records in a chronological sequence. Such a sequence can be determined because fossils are mainly found in sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock is formed by layers of silt or mud on top of each other; thus, the resulting rock contains a series of horizontal layers, or strata. Each layer contains fossils which are typical for a specific time period during which they were made. The lowest strata contain the oldest rock and the earliest fossils, while the highest strata contain the youngest rock and more recent fossils. Biochemical Evidence • The more closely related organisms are, the more similar is their biochemical makeup. (e.g. identical twins). • Nucleic Acid comparisons (DNA fingerprinting) - the more closely related two organisms are, the more similar is their DNA. • DNA fingerprinting is the most preferred way to study the evolution of life. Relate natural selection to changes in organisms. Natural Selection & Changes in Organisms • Natural selection results in Adaptations enable living organisms to cope with environmental stresses and pressures. Organisms change to adapt to their surroundings. • Change helps organisms: – Get air, water, food and nutrients. – Cope with physical conditions such as temperature, light and heat. – Defend themselves from their natural enemies – Reproduce. – Respond to changes around them. Natural Selection & Evolution Recognize the role of evolution to biological resistance. Biological Resistance • Pesticides (chemical used to kill bugs)If a pesticide is sprayed on a field eventually the bugs will become immune to the chemical in time and will stop dying off. • Antibiotic (used for pain or sickness)If someone continues taking ibuprofen then their system will become immune to the medicine and will have less of an effect.