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Introduction
Grammatical
Hierarchy
Definition of GRAMMAR
GRAMMAR:
• the structural system of a language.
• the branch of linguistics that deals with
syntax and morphology (and sometimes
also deals with semantics)
Linguistics
Syntax
Grammar
Morphology
Semantics
Five Ranks
• The grammar of the English language is
organized into five ranks:
the sentence
the clause
the phrase
the word
the morpheme
Diagram of the five ranks:
Each rank is composed of one or more
than one grammatical unit of the immediate
lower rank:
Sentence
Clause
Phrase
Word
Morpheme
A full sentence can generally be segmented rank
by rank down to its smallest constituents---the
morphemes.
Sentence
Clause
Noun Phrase
Determiner Noun
Verb Phrase
Auxiliary Adverb Main Verb
Prepositional Phrase
Preposition Determiner
Noun
These undergraduates are rapidly improving in their writing.
0.1 Morphemes
1.Definition:
• the minimum or smallest grammatical unit
• the smallest meaningful element of speech.
2.Classification:
Two categories:
Free Morphemes
Bound Morphemes.
1) Free Morphemes
1.Definition:
• has a complete meaning
• can stand by itself as a Simple Word
• can sometimes act as a complete utterance
in connected speech
• Can form Compound Words
• Can form Derivatives
2) Bound Morphemes
• are mostly affixes
• also meaningful, but the meaning is not
complete in itself unless it is attached to
some other form
• cannot stand by itself: it only exists as an
Inflectional or Derivational Affix.
Inflectional Affix
•
•
•
•
•
•
-’s (genitive case)
-s/-es (plural nouns)
-s/-es (the third person singular verbs in simple present)
-ed (past tense verbs)
-ing, -ed (-ing participle, -ed participle form of verbs)
-er, -est (comparative, superlative degree of adjectives/
adverbs)
Derivational Affix
• Prefix, Suffix
• (Prefix) + Root + (suffix)
• co-exist existence co-existence
Free M ＋ Affix
Derivative
Free morpheme
Morpheme
Free M ＋ Free M
Inflectional Affix
Bound morpheme
Compound word
-’s, -s -ing, -ed/-en
-est, -er, -s,-es
Affix
Prefix
Derivational Affix
＋ Root
Suffix
3) Allomorphs
Definition:
• The variants of the same morpheme are
called allomorphs.
Explanation:
• the same morpheme in different contexts
may take different phonological or
orthographical forms.
Examples:
In Orthography:
• inimil• inactive
immature illegal
• incoherent
immortal illogical
• inexperienced imperfect illegible
In phonology:
-s cats dogs houses
irirrational
irregular
irrelevant
0.2 Words
• is composed of one or more than one
morpheme.
• can be classified in two ways:
• in terms of word-formation
grammatical function
In terms of Word-formation
a) Simple Word
b) Derivative
c) Compound Word
a) Simple Word:
also called Morpheme Word (free morpheme)
minor but has frequent appearance and
strong derivational ability
the main body of English vocabulary
usually the small word
at
near
take
on
hand
make
down
foot
b) Derivative:
Structure:
(prefix) + root +(suffix) : unkindness
Prefix Influence the meaning of the root
Suffix Influence the part of speech of the root
Exceptions:
1. be-, en-/em, a- Influence the part of speech
befriend, enable, empower, asleep
2. Some suffixes only change the meaning
Friendship, booklet, idealism
c) Compound Word
Structure:
Free Morpheme + Free Morpheme
Classification:
• Compound Noun
Compound Adjective
Compound Verb
Compound Adverb
Compound Pronoun
Compound Conjunction
Compound Preposition
In terms of grammatical function
• Closed-class words
Open-class words.
Closed-class words
• Definition:
Closed-class words refer to those sets of
words whose items are closed or limited
in number and are only exceptionally
extended by the creation of additional
members.
Scope:
All the Function Words:
Preposition
Pronoun
Determiner
Conjunction
Auxiliary
Open-class Words
Definition:
Open-class words refer to those sets of words
whose items are indefinitely extendable.
New items are constantly being created and
old items are giving place to new ones.
Scope:
All the Content Words:
Noun
Adjective
Adverb
Main Verb
NOTE:
Cardinal Numeral, Ordinal Numeral and
Interjection are between closed and open
0.3 Phrases
Definition:
 is composed of one or more than one word.
 is a group of words organized in a specific way
with a key Word as its Head.
 The word class of the Head determines the
class of the phrase and the way in which the
words are organized.
Word Class of Phrase :
Noun Phrase
Verb Phrase
Adjective Phrase
Adverb Phrase
Prepositional Phrase
1) The Noun Phrase:
• Structure:
(Determiner) + (Pre-Modifier) + Noun + (Post-Modifier)
•
all the college
students
Noun as the Pre-Modifier
Determiner
Determiner
Noun as the Head
Prepositional Phrase
• His new book on phonology
Post-Modifier
• Milton lived in the 17th century.
• The author’s new novel that will soon come out
Non-finite Verb Phrase
Clause
2) The Verb Phrase:
Simple Verb Phrase
Complex Verb Phrase
In terms of
the amount of verbs
Finite Verb Phrase
Non-finite Verb Phrase
In terms of
grammatical form
Simple Verb Phrase:
Structure:
(Modifier) + Main Verb + (Modifier)
•
•
She looks pale.
We utterly detested him.
Complex Verb Phrase:
Structure:
Auxiliary /Auxiliaries + Main Verb + (Modifier)
• It is getting dark
• She ought to have told him about it.
• Joan will certainly object and so will Mary.
Finite Verb Phrase:
A finite verb phrase is initiated by a finite form,
that is, a verb form that changes according
to Tense or Subject.
Person
Number
I loved you.
Love  loved
Number
Tommy loves Lora.
Love  loves
Person
Love  love
Tense
The girls love fairy tales.
Non-finite Verb Phrase:
A non-finite verb phrase is initiated by a nonfinite form, that is, a verb form that does not
change according to Tense or Subject.
We went there to see a film.
Robert seldom goes there to see a film.
Finite
Andrew will go there to see a film.
I usually go there to see a film.
Non-finite
Point out finite and non- finite verb phrases:
• Having seen the film, we had a discussion.
• Painted by a famous artist, the portrait is
invaluable.
• Tired from studying all afternoon, she went
for a walk.
• Opening the book slowly and tentatively, she
began to read.
3) The Adjective Phrase:
Structure:
(Modifier) + Adjective + (Post modifier / Complementation)
• The course is pretty difficult.
• I’ll be glad to help you repair the car if you
show me what’s wrong.
4) The Adverb Phrase:
Structure:
(Modifier) + Adverb + (post Modifier)
• He spoke loudly and clearly.
5) The Prepositional Phrase:
Structure:
(Modifier) + Preposition + Complementation
• The weather has been fine except in the north.
• Now their footsteps could be heard directly above
my head.
• We are collecting money for the benefit of some
orphans.
0.4 Clauses:
• is composed of one or more than one
phrase.
• A full-fledged clause is structurally a
sequence of phrase and logically a
construction of “Subject + Predicate”.
The producers are able to supply a small part of our needs.
•
•
•
•
•
NP
Subject
Subject
VP
Verb
NP
Object
Predicate
Clause
Sentence
Classification:
1) In terms of grammatical function:
Independent clause (IC)
stand by itself
act as a complete utterance
Dependent clause (DC)
forms only part of
another clause or phrase
He knows everything about it.
I don’t think he knows everything about it.
Quiz:
• I went to the store. I didn't buy any bread.
IC. IC.
• I went to the store; I didn't buy any bread.
IC; IC.
• I went to the store, but I didn't buy any bread.
IC, IC.
• I went to the store; however, I didn't buy any bread.
IC; IC.
• When I went to the store, I didn't buy any bread.
DC, IC.
• I didn't buy any bread when I went to the store.
IC DC.
2) Simple and Complex Clauses
In terms of the “Subject + Predicate”
construction:
Simple Clause
only one
construction of
“subject + predicate”
Complex Clause
comprises
another clause or other clauses
as its element or elements
Examples:
It is not true.
Simple
Independent
What you said is not true.
Complex
He said that it was not true.
Simple
Independent
Dependent
He complained that what you said was not true.
Complex
Dependent
3) Main and Subordinate Clauses
• In a complex clause, the clause that takes
another clause as its element is the main
clause, while the clause that forms part of the
main clause is a subordinate clause.
Example:
Main Clause
Subordinate Clause
He complained that what you said was not true.
Subordinate Clause
Main Clause
4) Finite and Non-finite Clauses
• In terms of verb phrase type:
• Finite Clause:
takes a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb
Non-finite Clause:
takes a non-finite verb phrase as its predicator
I signed the paper to get the license. (Non-finite clause)
It is forbidden to smoke in this room. (Non-finite clause)
Quiz: Finite or Nonfinite?
1. Everybody left just after the ceremony
Finite
2. Inviting your sister was not a great decision
Nonfinite
3. I'll be home around ten if my train is on time.
Finite
4. They expect Susan to do all the work.
Finite
5. Deprived of oxygen, plants will quickly die
Nonfinite
5) Verbless clauses
• is marked by the absence of any form of
verb element
• is just a construction of “subject +
predicate” without any form of verb
element.
• Hungry and exhausted, the climbers
returned.
• Christmas then only days away, the
family was pent up with excitement.
0.5 Sentences
Features:
• the highest rank of grammatical unit.
• the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse
• Based on one or more than one clause
• can stand alone and perform a function in
social communication.
Definition:
a grammatical unit that can stand by itself
and perform a communicative function.
1) Full and Minor Sentences
• A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment
which in specific contexts and situations can stand
by itself and perform a communicative function.
• Minor sentences are extensively used in informal
discourses.
•
A: When did he arrive?
B: Last night.
No smoking!
Fire!
• A Full Sentence is a sentence with an
expressed subject and predicate.
• This kind of sentence is mostly used in
formal speech and writing.
Classification of Full Sentence:
• Simple Sentence
one independent clause
• Compound Sentence
Two or more coordinated independent clauses
• Complex Sentence
an independent clause comprising one or
more dependent clauses as its elements
• Compound-complex Sentence
Two or more coordinated independent
clauses with at least one complex clause
Examples:
S. S.
Some students like to study in the mornings.
S. S.
Juan and Arturo play football every afternoon.
S. S.
Alicia goes to the library and studies every day.
I tried to speak Spanish, and
my friend tried to speak English.
Cpd. S.
Cpx. S.
Cpx. S.
We had to go inside when it started raining.
As long as it isn't cold , it doesn't matter if it rains.
Cpd. Cpx. S.
I admire Tim, but he doesn't admire me,
although I try hard to impress him.
Even if you fail, at least you tried, and you're a better person for it.
Quiz