* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download S(A)
Serbo-Croatian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Esperanto grammar wikipedia , lookup
Dependency grammar wikipedia , lookup
Malay grammar wikipedia , lookup
Japanese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Integrational theory of language wikipedia , lookup
Probabilistic context-free grammar wikipedia , lookup
Musical syntax wikipedia , lookup
Macedonian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Scottish Gaelic grammar wikipedia , lookup
Focus (linguistics) wikipedia , lookup
English clause syntax wikipedia , lookup
Morphology (linguistics) wikipedia , lookup
Spanish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Vietnamese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Yiddish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Polish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Latin syntax wikipedia , lookup
Cognitive semantics wikipedia , lookup
Chinese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Junction Grammar wikipedia , lookup
Determiner phrase wikipedia , lookup
Pipil grammar wikipedia , lookup
Sloppy identity wikipedia , lookup
Preposition and postposition wikipedia , lookup
Lexical semantics wikipedia , lookup
English grammar wikipedia , lookup
Chapter 4 Syntax Review • 1. The following sentence contain both free and bound morphemes (derivational and inflectional morphemes). Pick out them. • The traffic policeman asked the factory leader to move his car. Discussion: • Can you write out four different phrases in English representing NP, VP, AP, and PP respectively? • According the phrase structure rule, can a phrase simply consist of a N or V? What is syntax? • ----a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. • ---a branch of linguistics that studies the rules governing the ways different constituents(成分) are combined to form sentence in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structure.指研究语言中不 同成分组合成句子的支配规则,或者是研究句子 构造中各个成分之间的相互关系。 • Constituent(成分): is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: for example, in the sentence The boy ate the apple, S(A), the boy(B), ate the apple(C), each part is a constituent. Categories • Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech) Syntactic categories • A small number of classes into which words can be grouped and which can generally substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality, e.g. noun, verb, etc. Word-level categories • Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep. • Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Auxi, Conj. • Are word categories clear-cut? The criteria on which categories are determined • • • • Meaning Inflection Distribution Note: The most reliable criterion of determining a word’s category is its distribution. The criteria on which categories are determined • Meaning : nouns--- entities(human beings and objects); verbs --- action, sensations and states. • Inflection: plural affix (boys,books); past tense affix (liked, washed) • Distribution: what type of elements can cooccur with a certain word,e.g. a boy, the flowers, shall go. Phrase categories and their structures • Phrases----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases. The category of a phrase is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. The most common phrasal categories are as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P). • The structure: specifier + head + complement • Head---- the word around which a phrase is formed • Specifier---- the words on the left side of the heads • Complement---- the words on the right side of the heads Phrase categories and their structures • Specifier: A word that helps to make more precise the meaning of the head of the phrase and occurs at the left of its phrase. • 出现在短语左边能使短语中心词意义更明 确的词。 Phrase categories and their structures • Complement: The element or elements which provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head, and attached to the right of the head in English, e.g. the book in bought the book. • 提供中心词所隐含物体和位置信息的成分, 英语的补语通常在中心词的右边。 Phrase structure rules • A special type of the grammatical mechanism (a rule of grammar) that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: • NP (Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. • VP (Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. • AP (Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to • PP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station. The XP rule XP Specifier X Complement Head Note: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the figure, in which X stands for N, V, A or P. The XP rule • XP rule: a single general phrasal stuctural rule that captures the appropriate placement of specifiers, heads, and complements. X- Theory • XP (Specifier)X• X- X(complement) XP(Phrase level) X- specifier X(head) complement Coordination rule • Coordination rule --- a rule of grammar that states the composition of a coordinate structure. • X → X﹡Con X • Coordination structures-----the structures(phrases) that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or. Coordination rule • Coordination structures-----the structures(phrases) that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or. ----Coordination has four important properties: • no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction; • a category at any level can be coordinated; • the categories must be of the same type; • the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined. Phrase elements • • • • Specifier Head Complement modifier Specifiers • ---- Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners as in NP, qulifiers as in VP and degree words as in AP and sometimes Ps. • The syntactic category of the specifier does not vary or differ depending on the category of the head? Complements • • • • Are the underlined parts complements? a story about a little girl in the street clean the room • told me a story • put it on the table • The teacher believed that the student would pass the exam. Complements • ---- Complements themselves can be a phrase, they provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head, e.g. a story about a sentimental ﹡girl; There can be no complement, one complement, or more than one complement in a phrase, e.g. appear, break, put…; a sentence-like construction may also function as a complement such as in “I believed that she was innocent. I doubt if she will come.” That/if are complementizers, the clauses introduced by complementizers are complement clause. Complements • There is not limit on the number of embedded clauses that occur in a sentence. • Not all verbs can take a CP complement. Words that can take CP are not verbs alone; As, Ns and Ps can all take CP. Complements • 补语为实体和位置提供信息, 这些实体和 位置隐含在中心词的意义中。如eat隐含被 吃的东西,in隐含着位置。 • 这种包含在中心词中的信息被称作次范畴 化。次范畴化信息与短语结构规则确保各 词项在不同类型的树形结构中处于恰当的 位置。 • 动词所带补语的类型主要由动词的类型所 决定。不及物动词可以不带补语,也可以 带介词短语做补语。如The bird vanished from sight. 系动词带形容词做补语,如The man became angry. 不同的及物动词可带 不同类型的补语,如下表所示 补语类型 动词中心词 NP cut, prove The farmer cut rice. NP NP tell, hand He told me a story. NP PP give,send She gave a gift to me. PP PP talk,speak He talked to me about Jenny. NP PP PP open, repair 例子 He opened the door for me with a key. • 同一个词可以属于不同的次范畴,因此可以带不 同类型的补语。如eat可做及物动词也可作不及物 动词,因此它可以带名词短语补语,也可以不带 补语。有的动词却需要带多个补语,如put通常要 带一个名词短语和一个介词短语作补语,如He put his hands in his pockets合乎英语语法。有的 动词可带两个名词短语做补语,也可带一个名词 短语和一个介词短语做补语,如give, send, hand, tell 等。如He told his story to The China Daily, 也可以说He told The China Daily his story。 Complements • Transitive verb: a verb which takes an object. • Ditransitive verb: a verb takes an indirect and a direct object, e.g. I gave my mother the money. • Complex transitive verb: a verb which takes a direct object and an object complement, e.g. we elected John chairman. • 及物动词,双及物动词,复合及物动词 Modifiers • ---- Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads.(用于描述中心词特征的非 必需的成分) • The most common modifiers of Ns : adjective phrases • The most common modifiers of Vs: adverb phrases and prepositional phrases which describe manner and time. • Modifiers in English vary in terms of their position with respect to the head. Modifiers • The Expanded XP rule: XP→(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod) This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement, a modifier that occurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well such as “read the book very carefully”. Sentences (the S rule) • Sentence rule: a rule of grammar that states the composition of a sentence. • 句子在传统语法中是指能单独存在并表达 一个连贯思想的话语或词的书面序列。从 结构的角度出发,句子可定义为句法分析 的最大单位。 在转换语法中,句子是具有 句法特征的最大语法类,以符号S表示。句 子的各个成分通过句法规则结合在一起而 生成句子。 Sentences (the S rule) • S NP VP S VP NP Det A NP N boy V found Det the N evidence Sentences (the S rule) S NP infl VP InflP(=S) NP Infl VP Many linguists believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. Infl is an abstract category inflection (dubbed ‘Infl’) as their heads, which indicates the sentence’s tense or an auxiliary. Infl realized by a tense label InflP ( =S ) VP NP Det A NP N Infl boy Pst V found Det the N evidence Infl realized by an auxiliary InflP ( =S ) VP NP NP Det A N Infl boy will V find Det the N evidence Transformations • • • • • Auxiliary movement (inversion) Do insertion Deep structure & surface structure Wh-movement Move α and constraints on transformations Transformations • Transformation: a type of syntactic rule that can move an element from one position to another. • Auxiliary movement: a transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to the head C position in CP in the formation of yes-no questions in English. Transformations • do insertion : the insertion of do into sentences that do not already have an auxiliary verb, thereby making inversion possible in the formation of yes-no questions in English. Auxiliary movement (inversion) • Inversion Move Infl to the left of the subject NP. • Inversion (revised) Move Infl to C. CP S NP C Det the N Infl train will V arrive Auxiliary movement (inversion) CP S C Infl Det Will the NP N Infl train e V arrive Do insertion • Do insertion---- Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. CP S C NP Infl Birds VP fly Figure-1 CP CP S C NP Infl Birds do Figure-2 VP fly S C Infl NP Infl Do birds e Figure-3 VP fly Deep structure & surface structure • Deep structure----formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties; it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence. • Surface structure----corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written. Deep structure & surface structure • Deep structure: any structure generated by the phrase structure rules of a transformationsal grammar. • Surface structure: the structure that results from applying transformational rules of a transformational grammar. The organization of the syntactic component The XP rule Deep structure transformations Surface structure Subcategorization restricts choice of complements • In order to transform a sentence from deep structure to surface structure, the grammar makes use of different syntactic mechanisms, e.g. the XP rule, subcategorization, transformations. • The representation of D-structure and Sstructure do not necessarily differ. They may look the same. Wh-movement • Wh-movement: a transformation that moves a wh- phrase to the beginning of the sentence, the specifier position under CP. Wh-movement • Consider the derivation of the following sentences: What languages can you speak? What can you talk about? • These sentences may originate as: You can speak what languages. You can talk about what. Wh-movement • Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence. • What language can you speak ? • What can you talk about ? Wh-movement • Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP. (Revised) CP S NP Who C VP NP e Infl Pst V won NP the game Move α • Move α: a general rule for all the movement rules, where “alpha” is a cover term for any element that can be moved from one place to another. Move α and constraints on transformations • Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position. • No element may be removed from a coordinate structure.