Download Lecture 07

Lecture 7
Syntax
Transformations
Complement Options
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Human language allows different complement options.
Thus, simple phrase structure rules are formalized to
produce a wide variety of phrases and sentences.
Information about the complements permitted by a
particular word is included in its entry in a speaker’s
lexicon:
syntactic category
phonological representation
meaning
complement(s) required/allowed
Subcategorization

The term subcategorization is used to refer to
information about a word’s complement options:
S
NP
Infl
VP
Pst
Det
N
The
boy
NP
V
Det
N
devoured the sandwich
Subcategorization
S
NP
Infl
VP
Pst
Det
*
N
The boy
V
devoured
Verbs
Complement

NP
AP
PP
NP NP
NP PP
PP PP
NP PP PP
Example
The boy vanished.
The farmer cut [NP the tree].
The man became [AP very angry].
The teacher talked [PP to a student].
He gave [NP the boy] [NP a pen].
She gave [NP a certificate] [PP to the student].
She talked [PP to a doctor] [PP about her son].
We opened [NP the door] [PP for Andy] [PP with
a crowbar].
Complement Clauses
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All human languages allow sentence-like
constructions to function as complements:
[The teacher knows [that the students will pass]].
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Words such as that, if, or whether are
known as complementizers (Cs).
They introduce an S complement, forming
the CP (complementizer phrase).
CP
CP
S
NP
VP
C
Det
N
that
the
students
Infl
V
will pass
CPs as Complements
S
NP
Infl
VP
CP
S
NP
Det
N
The teacher
NonPst
V
C
knows
that
Det
Infl
N
the students
VP
V
will
pass
CPs as Complements

There is no limit to the number of embedded
clauses that can occur in a sentence:
A man thought that a woman said that Mary
reported that …
Each CP complement can contain a verb that
permits a complement:
-the topmost clause contains the verb think
-its complement clause contains the verb say
-its complement clause contains the verb report
...
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Transformation
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The phrase structure rule interacts with
complement options to form a range of
patterns:
XP  (Specifier) X (Complement)
Yet, this system cannot plausibly describe
a number of syntactic phenomena.
Some changes are required to
accommodate them.
Inversion in yes-no Questions
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a. Will the boy leave?
auxiliary verb to the left of the subject (cf.
the XP rule)
b. The boy will leave.
auxiliary verb in the appropriate position
in accordance with the XP rule
Can we explain this difference in word
order?
Two Steps
The yes-no question structures are built in two steps:
1. The XP rule forms a structure in which the head (the
auxiliary) occurs between the subject (its specifier) and
the VP (its complement):
S
NP
Det
N
the
boy
Infl
VP
V
will
leave
Two Steps
2.
The second step requires a rule that
can move an element form one
position to another (transformation):
Inversion:
Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.
Will the boy _____ leave?
  
Advantages

Two advantages:
There is only one type of auxiliary verbs in
English, and they occur under Infl.
An extra process (inversion) accounts for the positioning of auxiliaries
in yes-no questions.
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The two sentences (the statement and the yesno question) have the same basic structure.
They differ only in that inversion has applied to move the Infl
category in the question structure.
Deep Structure
Surface Structure
The transformational analysis claims that there are
two levels of syntactic structure:
 The deep structure (D-structure):
formed by the XP rule
(It plays a special role in the interpretation of sentences.)
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The surface structure (S-structure):
results from applying the appropriate
transformations
(It corresponds to the final syntactic form of the sentence.)
Deep Structure
Surface Structure
The XP rule

D-structure
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Transformation

S-structure
Wh Movement
Which theorem should the professor prove?
D-structure
S
NP
Infl
VP
NP
Det
the
N
professor should
V
prove
Det
which
N
theorem
Wh Movement
The deep structure differs from the surface form.
Why?
1. The wh phrase fulfils the complement function:
which theorem occurs as complement of the verb
prove.
(cf. *The professor should prove.)
2. This, also, captures the fact about the meaning of this
sentence:
which theorem asks about the thing that was
proven.
Wh Movement
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A transformation converts this deep
structure into the corresponding surface
structure.
It moves the wh phrase from its position
in D-structure to a position at the
beginning of the sentence.
This transformation is called:
Wh Movement.
Wh Movement
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Wh Movement:
Move the Wh phrase to the beginning of the
sentence.
Applying the two processes of transformation,
Wh Movement and inversion, produces the
desired surface structure:
Which theorem should the professor _____ prove _____?

 inversion 

Wh Movement 
Detailed Transformations
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To which position does the auxiliary verb
associate when moved by inversion?
In simple Ss, there is no position to the left of
the subject (the specifier).
The assumption, then, is that all Ss occur within
larger CP shells, whether embedded or not.
If embedded, the CP can contain an overt
complementizer.
Elsewhere, the C position is left empty.
CP Shell
CP
C
S
NP
Det
N
the
boy
Infl
VP
V
will
leave
Auxiliary Movement
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The auxiliary is moved into the empty position in yes-no questions.
Inversion (revised):
Move Infl to C.
A transformation changes an element’s position. It does not:
-change the category of any word,
The auxiliary retains its Infl label.
-eliminate structural configuration created by the
phrase structure rules
The auxiliary’s former position remains in the tree structure,
marked by e (for empty) and called a trace.
Auxiliary Movement
CP
C
S
NP
Infl
Det
N
VP
Infl
will
the
boy e
inversion 
V
leave
Do insertion
Those birds sing.
Do those birds sing?
Do insertion:
Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position:
D-structure

Do insertion

Inversion
D-structure
CP
C
S
NP
Det
N
those
birds
Infl
VP
NonPst
V
sing
Do insertion
CP
C
S
NP
VP
Det
N
Infl
V
those
birds
do
sing
Inversion
CP
C
S
NP
Infl
Det
N
VP
Infl
do
those
birds
e
inversion 
V
sing
Relocating the Wh Phrase
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The auxiliary is located in the C position.
So, the fronted Wh phrase will occupy the specifier position of the
CP.
Wh Movement (revised)
Move a Wh phrase to the specifier position under CP.
D-structure
the professor should prove which theorem

Wh Movement and Inversion

S-structure
Which theorem should the professor prove?
Relocating the Wh Phrase
CP
C
S
NP
Det
Which
NP
N
Infl
Det
N
theorem
should
the professor
VP
Infl
e
V
prove
NP
e

 inversion 

Wh Movement 
Relocating the Wh Phrase
CP
C
NP
S
NP
Infl
VP
NP
N
who
e
 
Pst
V
proved
Det
the
N
theorem
Assignment for next week
Minimalist Syntax