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Download 英语写作基础教程第三章(2)
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Chapter Three Making Correct and Effective Sentences Outline Definition of a sentence Classifications of sentences Complete Sentences and Sentence Fragments Effective Sentences Skills in Writing Sentences Common Mistakes Correction The Definition of a Sentence A sentence is a grammatical unit consisting of one or more words that are grammatically linked. A sentence can include words grouped meaningfully to express a statement, question, exclamation, request, command or suggestion. Sentences are generally characterized in most languages by the presence of a finite verb, e.g. "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog". A sentence can also be defined in orthographic terms(拼字法) alone, i.e., as anything which is contained between a capital letter and a full stop.For instance, the opening of Charles Dickens' novel Bleak House begins with the following three sentences: London. Michaelmas term lately over, and the Lord Chancellor sitting in Lincoln's Inn Hall. Implacable November weather. The first sentence involves one word, a proper noun. The second sentence has only a non-finite verb(非谓语动词). The third is a single nominal group(名义上的 组合). Only an orthographic definition encompasses this variation. As with all language expressions, sentences might contain function and content words and contain properties distinct to natural language, such as characteristic intonation and timing patterns. Classification By structure One traditional scheme for classifying English sentences is by clause structure, the number and types of clauses in the sentence with finite verbs(谓语动词). 1.A simple sentence(简单句) consists of a single independent clause(独立从句) with no dependent clauses 从属从句. 2. A compound sentence(并列复合句) consists of multiple independent clauses with no dependent clauses. These clauses are joined together using conjunctions, punctuation, or both. 3. A complex sentence(复杂句) consists of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. 4. A complex-compound sentence复杂复合句) (or compound-complex sentence) consists of multiple independent clauses, at least one of which has at least one dependent clause. 1.A simple sentence A sentence with one independent clause and no dependent clauses. My aunt enjoyed taking the hayride with you. China's Han Dynasty marked an official recognition of Confucianism. Compound Sentence: A sentence with multiple independent clauses but no dependent clauses. A sentence with one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. The clown frightened the little girl, and she ran off screaming. The Freedom Riders departed on May 4, 1961, and they were determined to travel through many southern states. Complex Sentence: A sentence with one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. After Mary added up all the sales, she discovered that the lemonade stand was 32 cents short While all of his paintings are fascinating, Hieronymus Bosch's triptychs, full of mayhem and madness, are the real highlight of his art. Complex-Compound Sentence: A sentence with multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Catch-22 is widely regarded as Joseph Heller's best novel, and because Heller served in World War II, which the novel satirizes, the zany but savage wit of the novel packs an extra punch. By purpose Sentences can also be classified based on their purpose: 1.A declarative sentence or declaration陈述句, the most common type, commonly makes a statement: "I have to go to work." 2.An interrogative sentence疑问句 or question is commonly used to request information — "Do I have to go to work?" — but sometimes not; see rhetorical question. 3.An exclamatory sentence感叹句 or exclamation is generally a more emphatic form of statement expressing emotion: "I have to go to work!" 4. An imperative sentence祈使句 or command tells someone to do something (and if done strongly may be considered both imperative and exclamatory): "Go to work." or "Go to work!" Rhetorical classification of sentences: As to the arrangement of sentence elements, sentences may be classified as: a) periodic sentences(圆周句) b) loose sentences(松散句) c) balanced sentences(对偶句) The periodic sentence The periodic sentence emphasizes its main idea by placing it at the end, following all the subordinate clauses and other modifiers that support the principal idea.[2] The sentence unfolds gradually, so that the thought contained in the subject/verb group only emerges at the sentence's conclusion.[3] Obviously artificial, it is used mostly in what in oratory is called the grand style. (suspense or Chinese thinking?) E.g. 1) Although he had done all he could to come early, he missed the lecture. 2) The great question that has never been answered, and which I have not yet been able to answer despite my thirty years of research into the feminine soul, is this, “What does a woman want?” loose sentence It is the opposite of the loose sentence, also continuous or running style, where the subject and verb are introduced at the beginning of the sentence..(Typical English thinking!) E.g.1) He missed the lecture although he had done all he could to come early. 2) Read the letter again if you have time. A balanced sentence A balanced sentence is one in which parallel structure is used to express parallel ideas. Balanced sentences can give emphasis and variety to our writing. E.g.1) The more you write, the more you can write. 2) They died for liberty; they died for us. 3) What is written without effort is in general read without pleasure. Major and minor sentences A major sentence is a regular sentence; it has a subject and a predicate谓语. For example: "I have a ball." In this sentence one can change the persons: "We have a ball." However, a minor sentence is an irregular type of sentence. It does not contain a finite verb. For example, "Mary!" "Yes." "Coffee." etc. Other examples of minor sentences are headings (e.g. the heading of this entry), stereotyped expressions ("Hello!"), emotional expressions ("Wow!"), proverbs, etc. This can also include nominal sentences like "The more, the merrier". These do not contain verbs in order to intensify the meaning around the nouns and are normally found in poetry and catchphrases.[3] Rewrite the following two simple sentences (1) The young pilot was on his first overseas training. (2) He felt very uneasy. (a) The young pilot on his first overseas training felt very uneasy. (b) The young pilot felt very uneasy during his first overseas training. (c) The young pilot's first overseas training made him feel very uneasy. (d) Extreme uneasiness seized the young pilot on his first overseas training. (e) The young pilot was on his first overseas training, feeling very uneasy. (1) The young pilot was on his first overseas training. (2) He felt very uneasy. (a) The young pilot on his first overseas training felt very uneasy. (b) The young pilot felt very uneasy during his first overseas training. (c) The young pilot's first overseas training made him feel very uneasy. (d) Extreme uneasiness seized the young pilot on his first overseas training. (e) The young pilot was on his first overseas training, feeling very uneasy. (f) It being his first overseas training, the young pilot felt very uneasy. (g) The young pilot was on his first overseas training and felt very uneasy. (h) The young pilot, who was on his first overseas training, felt very uneasy. (i) When the young pilot was on his/first overseas training, he felt very uneasy. (j) As the young pilot was on his first overseas training, he felt very uneasy. (k) The young pilot was on his first overseas training, so that he felt very uneasy. Complete Sentences and Sentence Fragments A grammatically complete sentence is one that contains at least a subject and a predicate verb; if the verb is transitive, there must be an object; if the verb is a link verb, there must be a predicative or complement. Attributes and adverbials, though they are not essential elements of a sentence, help to make the meaning clear or complete: He came. He came to the classroom very early. She wrote a letter. She wrote a long letter to her parents. Dr. Smith is a professor. Dr. Smith is a well-known professor of physics. In order to be a sentence, a group of words must meet three criteria: It must contain a subject; It must contain a predictive verb; It must make a complete thought. 1 Completeness in Structure They are correct because they are complete in structure: 1.Each has a subject and a predicate verb and also because each begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop. 1.How to operate this computer? 2. Have lost my key. 3.Because he hadn’t finished his assignment, so he continued working in the classroom. 4.The old man returning home after eight years’ absence to find that the neighbors he had known were no longer there. 5.Mark Twain whose experience as a sailor on the Mississippi provided him with abundant material for the novels he was to write. 2 The Right Subject We have kept the nonfinite verbs and changed the subjects in the original sentence. It is also possible to improve the sentences in other ways. These sentences show that the subject of a sentence should be properly related to the nonfinite verbs before it. Entering the lecture hall, the size of the crowed surprised me. 1.On entering the classroom, the students stood up and said, “Good morning!” 2.After finishing her composition, the translation exercise was taken up. 3.Hurrying to the conference room, no one was there. 4.Returning home after work, supper was waiting for him in the kitchen. 5.To look at a map, the importance of this new railway will be seen. Sentence Fragment 不完整句 a sentence fragment is a part of a sentence; it is a group of words not complete in itself 1. Dependent-word fragments 从属 词不完成句 2. –ing and to fragments 现在分词和 不定式不完整句 3. Added detailed fragments附加细节 不完整句 4. Missing-subject fragments主语缺 位不完整句 1. Dependent-word fragments After I cashed my paycheck. I treated myself to dinner. I won’t leave the house. Until I hear from you. Rick finally picked up the socks. That he had thrown on the floor days ago. Activity 1 Examples Although I felt miserable Although I felt miserable, I tired to smile to the photographer. The man who found my wallet The man who found my wallet returned it next day. 1. if I don’t get a raise soon 2. because it was raining 3. when I heard the news 4. because I couldn’t find the car keys 5. the restaurant that we tried Exercises: Please translate the following sentences into English. 1、他花30万美元买了这所房子。 2、孩子不能接近这个地区。 3、春节要到了。 4、总共有200人在这次飞机坠毁事 件中丧生。 He got the house for 300,000 American dollars. He paid 300,000 American dollars for the house. The house cost him 300,000 American dollars. It took him 300,000 American dollars to buy the house. The house took him 300,000 American dollars. He spent 300,000 American dollars buying/on the house. Children are not supposed to approach the area. Children are not permitted to approach the area. Children are not allowed to approach the area. Children are prohibited from approaching the area. Children are forbidden to approach the area. The Spring Festival is drawing near. The Spring Festival is coming near. The Spring Festival is getting nearer and nearer. The Spring Festival is arriving soon. The Spring Festival is in sight. There are altogether 200 people losing their lives in the air crash. There are altogether 200 death in the air crash. 200 people lost their lives in the air crash. 200 people were killed in the air crash. This air crash killed 200 people. This air crash leads to the death of 200 people. This air crash claimed 200 people’s lives. 2. –ing and to fragments 现在分词 和不定式不完整句 I opened the door. Expecting to see my brother standing on the porch. I opened the door, expecting to see my brother standing on the porch. I opened the door. I was expecting to see my brother standing on the porch. Some students in order to get a better job after graduation. Some students study English hard in order to get a better job after graduation. Have better skills in English means have more chances to get jobs. Having better skills in English means having more chances to get jobs. Having better skills in English means to have more chances to get jobs. Having better skills in English means one can have more chances to get jobs. Added-detailed Fragments My son keeps several pets in his room. Including hamsters and mice Louis works evenings in a video store. He enjoys the fringe benefits. For example, seeing the new movies first. Also especially except for example like including such as Missing-Subject Fragments Alicia loved getting wedding presents. But hated writing thank-you note. Every other day, Kara runs two miles. Then does fifty sit-ups. I like all kinds of pizza, but refuse to eat frozen pizza. 3 Agreement Between the Subject and the Predicate Verb 1) We know the simple rule that the predicate verb of a sentence has to agree with the subject in person and number, such as a third-person singular takes a predicate verb with-s if the verb is in the present tense. There may be problems when the number of the subject is not easy to determine. 2) Collective nouns like family and audience may be neither singular or plural, depending on the meaning in which they are used. 3) When two subjects refer to different persons or are different in number, the verb should agree with the subject close to it. 4) Words together with, in addition to, besides, etc., are objects of prepositions; they do not affect the number of the subject. 5) A subject clause generally takes a singular verb, but a what-clause which clearly refers to many things can take a plural verb. 1.His whole family is/are here with him. The majority of the students taking this exam is/are girls. 2.These cattle belong/belongs to that ranch. 3.There is/are an enormous audience in the hall. 4.The audience was/were shocked by the scenes of violence in the film. 4 Agreement Between Pronoun and Antecedent Just as the predicate verb of a sentence has to agree with the subject in person and number, so a pronoun has to agree with its antecedent. 1) After a compound antecedent with or, nor, either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also, a pronoun agrees with the nearer part of the antecedent. 2) A singular pronoun follows a collective noun antecedent when the members of the group are considered as a unit; a plural pronoun, when they are thought of individually. 3)For such singular antecedents as each, either, neither, one, no one, everyone, someone, anyone, nobody, everybody, somebody, and anybody, which may refer to both male and female, she or he, his or her, him or her, or the preferred plural pronoun they, their or them used. 1.I’m going to talk on jazz music for he is a well-known composer. 2.Leave out the word in that sentence because it is too difficult. 3.She told my sister that her idea was practicable. 4.He is the man recommended by Mr. Smith who knows how to fix cars. 5 Clear Pronoun Reference We use personal pronouns very often. They seem to be easy, but they should be used with care. Relative pronouns should also be used carefully. In short, when we use personal and relative pronouns, we should make sure that their reference is clear. 6 Ending Sentences with Full Stops When a sentence is structurally complete, whether long or short, it should end with a full stop. To join two or more complete sentences with commas may be possible in Chinese, but it is wrong in English. There is a name for such a mistake: the comma fault or the comma splice绞接. We should remember that a complete declarative sentence always ends with a full stop. I set out for the biggest bookstore in town, at the school gate I saw a girl of my class, she was going there, too, we decided to go together, we walked, the bookstore was not far away. 7 Joining Clause with Conjunctions When two or more sentences are closely connected in meaning, it may be better to put them into one sentence than separate them. Then those sentences will become clauses which should be joined together with proper conjunctions or other words, like relative pronouns. We should learn to distinguish between conjunctions and adverbs, such as but and however, so and therefore. We can join coordinate clause with a comma and a conjunction, or with a semicolon, or with a semicolon and an adverb. She enjoys listening to pop music, her sister likes classical music better. She speaks English fluently, she speaks French quite well. The planes for the building are not yet ready, the construction can’t start very soon. 8 A Main Clause in a Complex Sentence In a Complex sentence there must be a main clause, whether it is at the beginning or at the end of the sentence. Because he had not heard about that important decision. Whatever the director said at the conference. The man we could find for the job. 8. Proper Use of Comparisons Her English is much better than I. The language of Henry James is more elaborate than Ernest Hemingway. But for many, the fact that poor people are able to support themselves almost as well without government aid as they did with it is in itself a huge victory. 但在许多人看来,穷人能不靠政府救济养活 自己,而且生活得几乎和过去依靠政府救济 时生活得一样好,这件事本身就是一个巨大 的胜利。 (4) What easier way is there for a nurse, a policeman, a barber, or a waiter to lose professional identity than to step out of uniform? 对于护士、警察、理发师或是服务员来说, 还有什么比脱下制服更容易的方法使人们看 不出他们的职业身份呢? 9 Proper Use of Comparisons Adjectives or adverbs of the comparative degree should be used only when there is comparison. But we should not use adjectives or adverbs of the comparative degree when there is no comparison, explicit or implied. In addition, we should remember that only things of the same kind can be compared. 10 Correct Use of the Tense Since a predicate verb must be used in a certain tense, we should learn to use the tenses correctly. Tenses tell the action of the verb takes place. Whenever we make a sentence, we should ask ourselves when the thing mentioned in the sentence happens, and use the right tense to report it. Perhaps the perfect tenses are more difficult than the other tenses and deserve greater attention. When we talk about something that happened in the past, but its result remains at present, we should use the present perfect. They changed their timetable and they are working according to it. This is his latest novel. Did you read it? We are going to the Great Wall. Did you go there? He has been a friend of mine for a few years, but we are no longer in touch. I have read the book for several days and will finish it tonight. He visited all the historical monuments he wanted to see for a long time. So far we have been talking about the requirements of correct sentences and a few common mistakes. There are of course many other types of mistakes. The best way to deal with them is to review grammar and study the entries we are not clear about in a dictionary, and observe the use of words, while we are learning new things, we can discover and correct our old mistakes. Effective Sentences Unity Coherence Conciseness Emphasis Variety Unity (统一) A unified sentence expresses a single complete thought. It does not contain ideas that are not closely related, nor does it express a thought that is not complete by itself. Faulty: Born in a small town in South China in the early 50s, he grew up to be a famous musician. Revised: He was born in a small town in South China in the early 50s. In his childhood he liked to sing songs. Later he entered a conservatory. In the 70s he became a famous musician. Coherence (连贯) Coherence means clear and reasonable connection between parts. Faulty: A man is judged not only by what he says but also by his deeds. Revised: A man is judged not only by what he says but also by what he does. A man is judged not only by his words but also by his deeds. Faulty: We thought she was charming, intelligent, and a very capable young woman. Revised: We thought she was charming, intelligent, and very capable. We thought she was a charming, intelligent, and very capable young woman. Faulty: We have great faith and high hopes for her. Revised: We have great faith in and high hopes for her. Faulty: She told my sister that she was wrong. Revised: “I’m wrong,” she said to my sister. She admitted that she was wrong and said so to my sister. “You’re wrong,” she said to my sister. My sister was told that she was wrong. Faulty: The fresh water, it is the most important things of the earth. Revised: Fresh water is the most important things of the earth. Conciseness (简洁) A sentence should contain no unnecessary words. If the idea is fully expressed, the fewer words are used, the better. Wordy: It was blue in color. Mary is a quiet and careful woman. He returned in the early part of the month of August. In spite of the fact that he is lazy, I like him. I liked him in spite of his laziness. For the people who are diligent and kind, money is just the thing to be used to buy the thing they need. Diligent and caring people use money only to buy what they need. Emphasis (强调) 1. When there is an important idea, it should be expressed with emphasis. In writing there are ways for placing emphasis on sentences or words that should be emphasized. Emphatic Sentences The sky was overcast. A north wind was blowing. It threatened to rain at any moment. A gloomy day. The poet was born poor, and poor he remained all his life. Don’t move! / How nice! Didn’t I tell you that you mustn’t touch this machine? I didn’t get a ticket for the opera. How could I? There were so many errors in the performance that the result was not a tragedy, but a comedy. Government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth. 2. Emphasis within the Sentences a. Placing. The beginning and the end, especially the end, of a sentence are the two places that attract the reader’s attention. There is a big tree, which is said to be 300 years old, in the temple. In the temple there is a big tree, which is said to be 300 years old. b. Repetition. Unnecessary repetition should be avoided. But in a proper context repeating a word or an idea in different words may be a means of emphasis. Bright, very bright, were the stars over the wild, dark Yenan hills. The good old days were gone forever, could never be got back again. 2. Emphasis within the Sentences c. The verb and the active voice. When describing actions, one had better use verbs instead of nouns denoting actions. At the sight of the disorderly crowd, he was aware that something bad would be possible. The moment he saw the disorderly crowd, he knew that something bad would happen. e. Subordination. Putting a minor idea in a dependent element of the sentence so as to give the main idea a prominent position. The professor walked into the classroom and he carried a bag of books with him. The professor walked into the classroom, carrying a bag of books with him. The professor walked into the classroom with a bag of books under his arm. The professor walked into the classroom, a bag of books under his arm. They were waiting for the meeting to begin. They talked with each other. They talked about the women’s football team. The team had won victories in Guangzhou. While waiting for the meeting to begin, they talked about the victories won by the women’s football team in Guangzhou. e. Emphatic words and phrases. This is the very dictionary I have been looking for. The director himself told me this news. His latest novel is by far the best he has ever written. What on earth are the children doing in the next room? I don’t like the play at all. This theatre is far better than the one we went to last time. I’m so hungry that I’ll eat whatever food I can find. Variety (多样) Variety is essential to good writing. A series of sentences of the same structure and length, beginning with the same noun or pronoun as the subject, would sound monotonous. Variety is achieved when short sentences are used in between long ones, simple sentences in between compound and complex one. 试比较以下两个段落 (1)We can imagine the beautiful surroundings. (2) There are many trees along the streets. (3) There is a clean river in the city. (4) There are many fishes in the river. (5) There are willow trees on the one side. (6) There are some pieces of grassland on the other side. (7) There are many flowers on them. (1) Just imagine the beautiful surroundings if we have made our cities greener. (2) Green trees line the streets. (3) A clean river winds through the city, in which a lot of fishes abound. (4) On the one side stand rows of willow trees. (5) On the other side lies a stretch of grassland sprinkled with many yellow and red flowers. 一些被滥用的句型 There is There are fewer and fewer citizens who like to see films. Films are now losing their appeal for many citizens. There are many people who complain of severe housing shortages. Housing shortages become the source of great complaint. 一些被滥用的句型 If If you compare the two tables carefully, you will find the difference. Careful comparison of the two tables will show you the difference. If we only apply book knowledge, we will not get good result. Book knowledge only will not be sufficient for us to get good result. If there is no pollution, man can certainly survive. Man can certainly survive without pollution. 一些被滥用的句型 In order to In order to prevent the problem becoming too serious to solve, we must take an immediate step. An immediate step must be taken before the problem becomes too serious to solve. 一些被滥用的句型 More and more More and more people now prefer to stay at home and watch TV. People in increasing numbers prefer to stay at home and watch TV. More and more people who become more and more rich can afford a motorcycle. The growing number of people who become increasingly rich can now afford a motorcycle. More and more teenagers smoke cigarettes in recent years. Teenage smoking is on the rise in recent years. More and more teachers are needed with the development of economy. There is an increasing demand for teachers with the development of economy. More and more trees have disappeared in the city. There is a sharp decline in the number of trees in the city. With the development of information technology, more and more E-books appear in our lives. The number of E-books is constantly on the rise as a result of the rapid development of information technology. Nowadays, more and more young people delay having children. There is a growing trend toward delayed childbearing among young couples. 一些被滥用的句型 It is… 或 It is… that… It is necessary to make out why agriculture has drawn so much attention. Why has agriculture drawn so much attention. It is reported that the sum of capital flowing to China ranks 2nd in the world. The capital flowing to China is the second largest in the world. It is a matter of fact that more and more students especially college students take part-time jobs in their spare time or in holidays, the most ordinary form of which is to act as a tutor. Many students are taking on part-time jobs such as tutoring younger students. It is the common sense that fake commodities are harmful to us. Common sense tells us that pirated goods are not beneficial in the long run. 练习1:Rewrite the following by putting the short sentences into compound or complex sentences, or sentences with participial, prepositional, or other phrases The girl began to learn to play the piano. At that time she was a child. Her mother was a famous pianist. The girl, whose mother was a famous pianist, began to learn to play the piano when she was a child. Because her mother was a famous pianist, the girl began to learn to play the piano very early. Being a daughter of a famous female pianist, the girl began to learn to play the piano when she was very young. Her mother being a famous female pianist, the girl began to learn to play the piano very early. The young dancer appeared on the stage. A stormy applause broke forth. A stormy applause broke forth because the young dancer appeared on the stage. A stormy applause broke forth when the young dancer appeared on the stage. The young dancer received a stormy applause during her appearance on the stage. The young dancer appeared on the stage, receiving a stormy applause. A stormy applause broking forth, the dancer appeared on the stage. He returned to his hometown. He had been away for twelve years. He looked in vain for the familiar landmarks. He looked in vain for the familiar landmarks when he returned to his hometown which he had been away for twelve years. He returned to his hometown which he had been away for twelve years, looking in vain for the familiar landmarks. He looked in vain for the familiar landmarks in his hometown which he had been away for twelve years. Having been away from his hometown for twelve years, he looked in vain for the familiar landmarks. He returned to his hometown which he had been away for twelve years only to find the unfamiliar landmarks. We have made some progress. We still have a long way to go. We have made some progress but we still have a long way to go. We still have a long way to go although we have made some progress. Some progress having been made, we still have a long way to go. Having made some progress, we still have a long way to go. The gypsies are really a nomadic people from India. They migrated into Europe. Once they were thought to be Egyptians. Before migrating into Europe, the gypsies are a nomadic people from India but once they were thought to be Egyptians. Originally being a nomadic people from India, the gypsies migrated into Europe but once they were thought to be Egyptians. The gypsies, whose ancestors are nomadic people from India and later migrated into Europe were once thought to be Egyptians. Professor Li had great concern for us. She often came to help us. As Professor Li had great concern for us, she often came to help us. Professor Li had great concern for us, so she often came to help us. Professor Li often came to help us because she had great concern for us. Professor Li, who had great concern for us, often came to help us. Professor Li, having great concern for us, often came to help us. Having great concern for us, Professor Li often came to help us. Professor Li had great concern for us and therefore often came to help us. 练习2:Rewrite the following sentences, emphasizing the main idea in each. Huang, who is over two meters tall, is the tallest man of the team. Huang, the tallest man of the team, is over two meters tall. Social position, reputation, even life itself, and friends, were no longer interesting to him after he went bankrupt. After bankruptcy, he no longer interested in anything, such as social position, reputation, even life itself and friends. He decided to take the job, and it was something unexpected. Out of expectation, he decided to take the job. China will not be the first to use nuclear weapons under any circumstances. Under no circumstances will China be the first to use nuclear weapons. Yang alone can do the work, and there are twenty students in the class. There are twenty students in the class, but Yang alone can do the work. China has changed a great deal as a result of reform and the open policy during the past 20 years. It is the reform and open policy that made China changed a great deal. 练习3:Rewrite the following passage, giving the sentences some variety in length and structure. I got up a little later than usual on Sunday morning. I washed and had a quick breakfast. Then I started going to town to buy the dictionary recommended by the teacher. At the school gate I saw Li Ping. I asked him if he was going to town too, and he said that he was. So we decided to go together. All the buses were crowded. We had to wait for a long time at the bus stop before we could get on a bus. An hour later we got off the bus at a busy street. There were three bookstores there. We went to the first one and didn’t find the dictionary. Then we went to the second one and the shop assistant said that the dictionary was sold out. I finally bought the dictionary at the third bookstore. After that Li Ping and I went to other stores and bought various things. We returned to school just in time for lunch. I got up a little later than usual on Sunday morning. After washing and having a quick breakfast, I started going to town to buy the dictionary recommended by the teacher. At the school gate I saw Li Ping and asked him if he was going to town as well. We decided to go together when he said he was. As all the buses were crowded, We had to wait for a long time at the bus stop before we could get on one. An hour later we got off the bus at a busy street, where three bookstores were available. We went to the first one and didn't find the dictionary. Then at the second one, the shop assistant said that the dictionary was sold out. I finally got the dictionary at the third bookstore. After that Li Ping and I went to other stores and bought various things. We returned to school just in time for lunch. Skills in Writing Sentences 1. 句子扩充 句子扩充指的是在简单句的基础上添加适当 的修饰成分,使句子能准确客观地表达作者 的思想,反映事物的本来面貌。 He is a college student. He is a junior at Beijing University, majoring in computer science. 1.1 添加形容词或副词 通过添加形容词或副词对句子中的名词和动 词加以修饰,使名词表意更确切,动词行为更 生动,给人以亲临其境,栩栩如生之感。这在 句子扩充的技巧中是最常用,也是最容易做到 的。 如: This course is a way to improve my language skills (这门课程是改进 我语言技巧的一种途径)。 修改后,This optional course is a good way to improve my English language skills effectively。 练习 1. The painting competition drew students. The yearly painting competition drew crowds of college students. 2.In China, both women and men can do well in their career. In today’s China, women can do equally well in their work. 1.2 添加介词短语 用来扩充句子的介词短语一般在句子 中作定语和状语,表明事物的特征和行 为发生的时间、地点、原因、目的、 方式等。通过给句子添加介词短语,可 以使句子意思更明确,信息更充实。在 说明文和记述文中介词短语用的最多。 例1 A) Brain drain is often heard· B) In recent years, brain drain is often heard in most of the developing countries· 例2 A) Creativity is an important feature· B) Creativity is one of the most important features of a successful person in our days· 练习: 1. He is going to Beijing. He is going up to Beijing next week for a job interview. 1.3添加分词短语 用于扩充句子的分词短语一般在句子 中作定语或状语。分词短语可分为现 在分词和过去分词。现在分词一般可 表示行为方式、伴随动作及时间和原 因等,而过去分词在句子中可表示原因、 时间、条件及动作发生时的背景或情 况。 A) They completed the experiment· B) Working right through more than two years, they completed the experiment. A) We had great difficulty in completing the project. B) Not having got enough hands, we had great difficulty in completing the project. 1.4 添加不定式 不定式是动词的一种非限定形式,在句子中可 以担当多种成分。不定式在句子中可以做主 语、宾语、表语、定语和状语。不定式具有 动词的特征,有时态和语态的变化。通过添加 不定式,可以把作者的思想表达的更充分,把事 情的原因,目的,结果,状态,性质和特征交代地 更清楚。 A) You should have confidence in your ability· B) You should have confidence in your ability to fulfill the task· A) Many students go to the library at weekends· B) Many students go to the library at weekends to enjoy reading books。 练习 The disease SARS made an attack on our country. An unexpected infectious disease SARS made a sudden attack on many areas of our country at the beginning of 2003. It is a step to make it legal for all people to receive education. It is a big step forward to make it legal for all people to have the right to receive higher education. The world population is 6 billion. The current world population is approximately 6 billion. The money will support students to continue their study. Consequently, the extra money obtained from part-time job will strongly support students to continue their study. Doing part-time job could take time; nevertheless it is not harmful if the students can manage their time. Admittedly, doing part-time job could take much time; nevertheless it is not absolutely harmful if the students appropriately manage their time. Modern industry has also polluted our environment. Having all the advantages mentioned above, modern industry has seriously polluted our environment. Government must take immediate action. Government must take immediate action to prevent the prevent the problem becoming too serious to solve. One measure is to create nature reserves where animals can wander and be protected. One of the most effective measures to avoid the extinction of wild animals is for all countries to create nature reserves where all the native species of animals can wander freely and be protected from men. Money is considered to be an important thing. Money is considered by some people to be the most powerful and important thing in life. The city government should give consideration to the planting of trees. In the planning of urban development, the city government should give full consideration to the planting of trees. 2. 句子合并 由于受汉语思维的影响和出于求稳怕错的心 理,很多中国学生在写作时都喜欢用简单句。 简单句短小精悍,意义明确,但却无法表达各个 单句之间的内在联系。读来让人觉得散乱,层 次不清楚,重点不突出。有时思路的不连贯还 会导致句子之间的关系游离,给理解带来一定 的困难。 A) A wrist-watch is a time-telling device· B) Its size is very small· C) It is very much convenient· D) It can be worn on the wrist· A wrist watch is a time telling device, which is so small and convenient that it can be wore on the wrist. 从而突出了手表的功能,兼顾了手表的 特征,句子之间的主从关系一目了然。 A) There are many netbars along the streets. B) They are crowded with people. C) They are mostly young men. D) Their fingers are dancing on the keyboard. 主语变来变去,让人摸不着头脑。 如果用句子合并的技巧把它改译 成: If you go along the streets, you can notice a lot of net bars crowded with people, most of whom are young men, whose fingers are dancing on the key board·就可以 使句子结构严谨、布局合理、主 题突出。 2.1. 复合句—— 名词从句 主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语 从句在句子中的作用相当于名词通常在句 子中所起的作用,因此统称为名词从句。 引导名词从句的关联词,主要有三类: 1. 主从连词:that, whether, if 2. 连接代词:who, whom, whose, what, which 3. 连接副词:when, where, why, how 主从连词只起连接作用;连接代词和连接副词 除了起连接作用外,还充当句子成分。 2.1. 1主语从句 主语从句有三类: 1) 由what等代词引起的主语从句,可以代替一个 名词加定语从句的结构: What they are after is profit. 2) 由连词that引起的主语从句,通常放到句子的 后面,而用it作形式主语: It’s not your fault that this has happened. 3) 由连接代词或连接副词或whether引起的主语 从句,这类句子可以直接用在句首作主语, 也可以放到句子后面用it作形式主语: When they will come hasn’t been made public. It hasn’t been made public when they will come. 练习 Keeping a diary in English is not difficult. It only needs your determination and practice. Keeping a diary in English is not so difficult as some students imagine. What it demands is the determination and practice. He come to the office earlier than before this morning. He suddenly realized he had forgotten to take the key with him. He meant to come to the office earlier than before this morning. But it occurred to him that he had forgotten to take the key with him halfway . Developing the underground will solve the severe housing problem. Many people doubt this. Whether developing the underground will help to solve the severe housing problem is still a doubtful question. We still have some ways to solve the problem. That is good news. It is good news that we still have some ways to solve the problem. 常用的经典主语从句 It is wrong/foolish/false/ridiculous/a fallacy to say/think/believe… money /happiness It is ridiculous to believe that money always brings happiness. It is a commonly accepted belief that…, coupled with…, leads to/ contribute to/result in… interest in English, seeking highly paid position in big corporations, enthusiasm for learning English It is a commonly accepted belief that interest in English, coupled with the growing awareness of its role in seeking highly paid position in big corporations, leads to a nationwide enthusiasm for learning English. It is high time that we put/laid great/special emphasis on… environmental protection /economic growth It is high time that we put great emphasis on environmental protection while keeping the fast economic growth. 常用的经典主语从句 From what has been discussed above/ Taking into account all these factors, we may reasonably come to/reach/draw the conclusion that… pollution problem ,complicated; one way, solve completely From what has been discussed above, we may reasonably come to the conclusion that the pollution problem is very complicated and people can hardly rely on one way to solve it completely. Therefore/ Obviously, it is important/necessary/essential that effective measures/steps should be taken to… remove, fake commodities Therefore, it is important that effective measures should be taken to remove fake commodities from stores and markets. Anyhow/ anyway, whether…is positive or negative/ good or not, it is certain that… legalization of euthanasia, moral and social problems Anyhow, whether the effect of euthanasia is positive or negative, it is certain that the legalization of euthanasia will bring serious moral and social problems to this world. 2.1. 2 宾语从句 宾语从句有三类: 1) 由what等代词引起的宾语从句,可以比较自由 地用在动词或介词后面: I’ll show you what I have put down in my book. This reminded me of what he had once told us. 2) 由连词that引起的宾语从句,这是最常见的, 有时在这种宾语和谓语之间可以插入一个 间接宾语或状语: I don’t doubt that they will be able to overcome the difficulties. He admitted to us that he had done it without the president’s permission. Chairman Mao announced on Oct.1st, 1949 that the People Republic of China was founded. 3) 由连接代词或副词引起的宾语从句: Tell me where you are from. I just can’t imagine how he could have done such a thing. 练习 What kind of show are they putting on? Can you tell me? Can you tell me what kind of show they are putting on. Peter has a slight headache sometimes. He has always been in good health except that. Peter has always been in good health except that he has a slight headache sometimes. I was far more intelligent than he was. I always took that for granted. I always took it for granted that I was far more intelligent than he was. You were unable to attend our meeting. We all thought that was a pity. We all thought it a pity that you were unable to attend our meeting. Every one of you should finish your homework on time. I regard that as important. I regard it important that every one of you should finish your homework on time. 常用的经典宾语从句 Nowadays, an overwhelming majority of people think/argue/claim that… But this argument/statement may be questioned/doubted/doesn’t hold water today. examinations, means, a person’s ability and aptitude Nowadays, an overwhelming majority of people think that examinations are a means to test a person’s ability and aptitude. Nowadays, an overwhelming majority of people think that examinations are the efficient and reliable means of testing a person’s true ability and aptitude. One of the great men once said/stated… Now more and more people share this belief. Knowledge is power One of the great men once said “Knowledge is power.” Now more and more people share this belief. 常用的经典宾语从句 It was once thought that/People used to think that.. But the fact is quite different/ But is this really the case? air pollution, large cities It was once thought that air pollution only affected large cities. But is this really the case? It was once thought that air pollution affected only the areas around large cities with factories and heavy traffic. But the fact is quite different. 常用的经典宾语从句 There is a public debate/ general discussion about the problem/issue of… Those who object to/ oppose…argue that… But people who advocate / favor…, on the other hand, claim/ maintain that… college students, part-time job,waste their time, improve their academic studies, gain much experience There is a general debate on the campus today about the phenomenon of college students’ doing a part-time job. Those who object to it argue that students should not waste their time in this way. But people who advocate it, on the other hand, claim that, by taking a part-time job, students can not only improve their academic studies, but also gain much experience. There is a general debate on the campus today about the phenomenon of college students’ doing a part-time job. Those who object to it argue that students should not spend their precious time in this way. But people who advocate it, on the other hand, claim that, by taking a part-time job or summer job, students can not only improve their academic studies, but also gain much experience, which they will never be able to get from the textbooks. 2.1. 3表语从句 表语从句有三类: 1) 由what等代词引起的: China is no longer what it used to be. 2) 由连词that引起的: My suggestion is that we turn the land into rice fields. 3) 由连接代词或连接副词引起的: That was how they were defeated. 常用的经典表语从句 Although the popular idea/belief is that…, a recent study / survey shows/reveals that… daydreaming, waste of time, intellectual growth Although the popular belief is that daydreaming is a waste of time and an unhealthy escape from real life, a recent study shows that daydreaming may contribute to intellectual growth and lead to the attainment of actual goals. 常用的经典表语从句 A is quite different from B in many ways. The most striking difference between A and B is … dormitory life, life at home Dormitory life is quite different from the life at home in many ways. The most striking difference between home life and dormitory life is that students must depend on themselves to get up in the morning on time for class, and they must depend on themselves to eat properly, to keep their clothes and bodies clean, and to set aside an appropriate amount of time for study and relaxation. The causes/reasons for.. have many and vary/ are complicated. They include… Perhaps the main reason is… teenage smoking, availability of cigarettes, pressure from other kids, act like adults The cause for the rise in teenage smoking have many and vary. They include availability of cigarettes, the pressure from other kids to be one of them, and the ever-present urge to act like adults. Teenagers also find smoking can ease the burden of problems at home and at school. Perhaps the main reason is that parents fail to set a good example. 2.1. 4同位语从句 He works hard. The fact does not necessarily mean that he is a competent leader. The fact that he works hard does not necessarily mean that he is a competent leader. He explained that he didn’t see the notice. The explanation is unsatisfactory. The explanation that he didn’t see the notice is unsatisfactory. He holds that there is no advantage in introducing the new method. Most of us don’t agree with his view. Most of us don’t agree with his view that there is no advantage in introducing the new method. 常用的经典同位语从句 They may be correct/right in saying/asserting that…, but they seem to fail to take note of/take into account the fact that… skyscrapers, save land They may be correct in asserting that skyscrapers can save a lot of precious land in the growing cities. But they seem to fail to take into account that a cluster of tall buildings in a city will not only overburden public transportation but also worsen environmental problems. Mirror-walled skyscrapers, whose reflective glasses reduce glare as well as heat inside, raise the temperature of the surrounding air. 常用的经典同位语从句 Now a lot of people believe that… But … , there is no/little evidence that… television, harmful effect on children Now a lot of people believe that television has a harmful effect on children. But although child psychologists have spent a great deal of time studying this problem, there is not much evidence that television brings about juvenile delinquency. The effect/ impact/ influence that… make/ exert on… is evident/ apparent/ obvious. books, teenagers The effect that books make on teenagers is apparent. The good book teaches youngsters knowledge and theories, exerts a favorable influence on their character formation and what is more, shows them the way when they feel at a loss. On the contrary, books with much description of violence or sex will tempt adolescents to fight or commit a crime. 3. 句子的从属关系 要客观、准确地表达作者的思想,就 必须弄清句子的主从关系,明确哪一 部分是主体,哪一部分是从属,并巧妙 地把它们放置在适当的位置。判断 主从关系的基本原则是:次要从属于 主要;原因从属于结果,条件从属于事 实;方式从属于动作;背景从属于现状 或判断。例如, In recent years, China’s economy has been developing rapidly, but we are still very poor and underdeveloped compared with the world’s developed countries. Compared with the world’s developed countries, China is still poor and underdeveloped, though China’s economy has been developing rapidly·改译后,突出 了“中国还很穷”这一基本国情, 把“经济发展很快”放在了让步 状语的位置,从而理顺了主从关 系,达到了理想表意效果。再如 再如,在“China’s Reform”这篇作文中 有位同学写了这样一个句子,“In recent years, China introduced a lot of foreign funds, focused on scientific researches, exploited local resources and economy developed fast·” 显而易见,这句话的本意是说“近年来,中国 大量引进外资,大搞科学研究,积极开发资源, 经济发展很快”。抛开语法和文字上的错误 不讲,单从句子结构分析就不难看出,作者基 本上是用中文的句子结构对应英文的句子结 构。没有仔细分析句子内部的逻辑关系,忽略 了英语句子主从关系严谨的特点. 本句子的主体应为“经济发展很快”, 而“…引进外资,…科学研究,开发…资 源”均为方式状语,都是手段。据此,我 们可以把原来的句子改译为 “By introducing foreign funds in a large scale, going in for scientific research and exploiting local resources, china’s economy has been developing rapidly in recent years·” Getting up a little later than usual on Sunday morning, and having to buy the dictionary recommended by the teacher, I washed and had breakfast quickly. Common Mistakes Correction 句式单调,语言啰嗦。没有掌握基本、 常用的表达法,不该用从句的时候用 了从句。 a. 用短语替代从句 One of these changes is that the computer emerged, which can nearly be seen in every corner of the world. One of these changes is the emergence of the computer in every corner of the world. Another result which is worthy of mention here is that the vision of people is greatly broadened, who are now more open-mined and ambitious. Another result worthy of mentioning is the broadening view and open-mindedness of people in general. If it is easier for us to communicate, it’s easier to make friends and enjoy life. The ease of communication helps us to enjoy life more. A lot of commentators have expressed their views on this state policy of birth control in China, among which are both praises and criticisms. The family planning policy has both its advocates and critics. b. 忘记了在中学学过的基本表达法 They point out that although there are five official languages in the UN, the most useful of which is English which is the first foreign language for most people. They point out that among the five official UN languages, English is the most useful and mother tongue of most people. In many universities second foreign languages are provided as optional courses for students who are willing as well as qualified to take them. Many universities offer an optional second foreign language course for willing and qualified students. The reasons which lead to this problem are worthy of research, whose resolution rests on a clear understanding of the factors responsible. The reason behind this shortage need to be understood in order to solve the problem. When failure happened, the proper attitude may be that he should make an investigation to find out what has led to the failure; after deliberate research, one should learn lessons from it and make some amendments if necessary. One should view failure as a learning experience. There are many teenagers who prefer to go to professional schools, which will train them into skilled worker who are likely to get better jobs. Many teenagers prefer to go to professional schools to train themselves into skilled workers for better jobs. When you come to the second traffic light, turn right. At the second traffic light turn left. c. 不擅于使用分词短语 The recommended age to study abroad is at least after 22 when they have graduated from colleges in China. The ideal age to study abroad is 22, after graduating from college. Agriculture, which is identified as the First Industry, is quite important for China. As an Agricultural country, it still plays an important role in the national economy. Agriculture, identified as the first industry in China, plays an important role in the national economy. d. 不会使用并列句或并列结构 In the past 20 years, Chinese economy has experienced a boom whose GDP now ranks 6th place in the international community. China’s economy has grown dramatically in the past 20 years and now ranks 6th internationally. Agriculture must be emphasized so that the living standard of the people in the country can steadily rise, which is indispensable for the stability of the country. Agriculture in the countryside is important to people’s standard of living and stability of the country. The population in the country account for more than 80% of the whole population, which means that if the stability of the country cannot be guaranteed, there will be no stability of the whole state. The population in the countryside accounts for 80% of the population and the stability of the nation depends on them. They argue that taking part-time jobs is commonplace among their foreign counterparts, which is helpful to make them independent. They argue a part-time job is common in foreign countries and helps students move toward independence. d. 过多使用从句与下笔缺乏考虑有关 As a result, people have to spend much more time on the road than if there is no traffic jam. In rush hours, people usually start an hour or earlier for fear that they might be caught and late. As a result, people often waste much time sitting in traffic and have to make accommodations such as leaving for work early in the morning to avoid traffic. As a result, the last twenty years of 20th century is described by commentators as a period of miracle, during which great achievements have been made. As a result, the last twenty years of 20th century has seen miraculous growth and achievement. Common Mistakes Correction 忽视平行结构,平行结构不平行。 Superman likes ice cream, catching villains and saving women. Superman likes eating ice cream, catching villains and saving women. When you are poor, you can walk, take the bus, or by bicycle. When you are poor, you can walk, take the bus or ride a bicycle. When you are poor, you can travel on foot, by bus or by bicycle. Love brings peace to this world, makes people cooperate with others, helps the family get along harmoniously. Love brings peace and cooperation among people and harmony within the family. 写作练习 Directions: You are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition entitled Books and Teenagers in three paragraphs. You are given the topic sentence for each paragraph and your part of writing should be no less than 160 words. 1. Different books are intended for people of different ages. 2. The effects of books on teenagers can either be positive or negative. 3. In my opinion, teenagers are not supposed to read all kinds of books.