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CHAPTER TWO
Learning, Cognition, and Memory
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
CASE STUDY: RITA
1. Which parts of Rita’s response accurately describe the
history of the New World? Which parts are clearly
inaccurate?
2. Based on Michigan’s geography, why might Rita think
making Michigan a state caused the British to move to
the upper Peninsula?
3. Why might Rita initially suggest that the British wanted
to get cups from China? Why might she then say they
wanted to get furs?
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
RITA’S MISINTERPRETATION
OF HISTORY
• Rita’s lack of information about some things
limits her ability to make sense of what she has
learned about Michigan’s history.
• Rita uses what she does know to draw logical
but incorrect inferences about why the British
were eager to find a new trade route to China.
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
LEARNING AS A
CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS
Learning: A long-term change in mental
representations or associations due to
experience
→ not brief and transitory but may not last forever
→ presumably has its basis in the brain
→ produces change due to experience
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
GENERAL PRINCIPLES:
LEARNING
1. By school age, young learners are usually actively
involved in their own learning.
2. Cognitive processes influence learning.
3. Learners must be selective about what they focus
on and learn.
4. Learners create (rather then receive) knowledge.
5. Learners make sense of new experiences based on
previous knowledge and beliefs.
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
HOW HUMAN MEMORY
OPERATES
Memory:
• Learners’ ability to “save” things mentally
• Consists of two components:
→ working memory
→ long-term memory
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
GENERAL PRINCIPLES:
How Human Memory Operates
1. Sensory input stays in a raw form only
briefly.
2. Attention is essential for most learning and
memory.
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
TWO KINDS OF MEMORY
1. Working Memory:
→ short duration
→ limited capacity
2. Long-Term Memory
→ long duration
→ limitless capacity
→ includes declarative and procedural knowledge
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
GENERAL PRINCIPLES:
Storing Information in Long-Term Memory
1. Information in long-term memory is interconnected
and organized.
2. Some long-term memory processes are more
effective than others.
3. Practice makes knowledge more automatic and
durable.
4. Learning strategies improve with age.
5. Prior knowledge and beliefs affect new learning.
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
STORAGE PRINCIPLE #1:
Information in Long-Term Memory is
Interconnected and Organized
•
•
•
•
Schemas
Concepts
Script
Theories
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
STORAGE PRINCIPLE #2:
Some Long-Term Memory Storage Processes
are More Effective than Others
• Rote Learning:
- rehearsal
• Meaningful Learning:
- elaboration
- organization
- visual imagery
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
STORAGE PRINCIPLE #3
Practice makes Knowledge More Automatic
and Durable
• Practice results in automaticity.
• Practice increases procedural knowledge.
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
STORAGE PRINCIPLE #4:
Learning Strategies Improve with Age
Learning Strategy:
Intentional use of cognitive processes to assist in
learning and remembering
→ rehearsal
→ visual imagery
→ organization
→ elaboration
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
STORAGE PRINCIPLE #5:
Prior Knowledge and Beliefs Affect New
Learning
→ Relevant prior knowledge results in meaningful
learning.
→ Prior knowledge sometimes interferes with learning
because of:
- inappropriate connections
- incorrect previous “knowledge” (misconceptions)
- confirmation bias
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
GENERAL PRINCIPLES:
Retrieving Information From LongTerm Memory
1. Initial learning affects recall.
2. Remembering depends on the context.
3. Ease of recall and use of information depends on
past frequency of recall and use.
4. Recall often involves reconstruction.
5. Long-term memory isn’t necessarily forever.
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
PROMOTING EFFECTIVE
COGNITIVE STRATEGIES
→ Remember how the human memory system
works.
→ Encourage effective long-term memory
storage.
→ Promote retrieval.
→ Monitor student progress.
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
STRATEGIES:
How The Human Memory System Works
• Grab and hold students’ attention.
• Keep the limited capacity of working memory in
mind.
• Relate new ideas to students’ prior knowledge and
experience.
• Accommodate diversity in students’ background
knowledge.
• Provide experiences on which students can build.
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
STRATEGIES:
Effective Long-Term Storage
• Present questions and tasks that encourage
elaboration.
• Show how new ideas are interrelated.
• Facilitate visual imagery.
• Give students time to think.
• Suggest mnemonics for hard-to-remember facts.
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
STRATEGIES:
Promoting Retrieval
• Provide opportunities to practice important
knowledge and skills.
• Provide hints to help students recall and
reconstruct information.
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
STRATEGIES:
Monitoring Students’ Progress
• Regularly assess students’ understandings.
• Identify and address students’ misconceptions.
• Focus assessments on meaningful learning rather
than rote learning.
• Be aware of students who have unusual difficulty with
certain cognitive processes:
- learning disabilities
- ADHA
Essentials of Educational Psychology, Second Edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved