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#1 Scientific Method • Steps that scientists use to gather information and answer questions. • Problem/Question, Hypothesis, Experiment, Conclusion, Theory • Data-quantitative (numbers) or qualitative (descriptions) #2 Hypothesis • Explanation for a question or a problem that can be formally tested. • Sometimes an “If…then” statement. • Educated guess. #3 Bias • Personal and unscientific judgment that may alter the results of an experiment. • Opinion or belief #4 Independent Variable • In an experiment, the condition that is changed because it affects the outcome of the experiment. • Manipulated variable. #5 Dependent Variable • In an experiment, the condition that results from changes in the independent variable. • Measured variable. #6 Metric System • Mass- gram-triple beam balance • Length- meter- meter stick • Volume- liter- graduated cylinder #7 Heterotroph • An organism that must consume its food. It cannot produce its own. • Consumer. • Herbivore, carnivore or omnivore. #8 Autotroph • An organism that can produce its own food. • Uses photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. • Producer. #9 Biology • Study of living things. • Animals, plants, bacteria #10 Biotic • Living part of an ecosystem. • Ex. Plants, animals, fungi, bacteria #11 Abiotic • Nonliving part of an ecosystem. • Air, water, soil #12 Homeostasis • Maintaining a stable internal environment. • Including body temperature and amount of water and nutrients. #13 Metabolism • All of the chemical reactions that take place in an organism. #14 Characteristics of living things • • • • • • • Made of cells Reproduce Have DNA Grow/Develop Obtain and use energy Respond to environment (Homeostasis) Adapt #15 Atoms • Made of protons (+), neutrons(0), and electrons (-). • Protons and neutrons in nucleus, electrons are in electron cloud. • Can form bonds to make molecules and compounds. #16 Bonds • Covalent Bonds- share valence electrons • Ionic bonds- formed by oppositely charged ions; + & • Hydrogen bonds- weak covalent bonds between hydrogen atoms; found in water and DNA #17 Ions • An atom that has a positive or negative charge • When atoms lose electrons they form a positive ion • When atoms gain electrons they form a negative ion #18 Adhesion • An attraction between molecules of different substances. • Helps water stick to surfaces. • Capillary action is when water moves against the force of gravity. Like from the roots to the top of a tree. #19 Cohesion • An attraction between molecules of the same substance. • Helps water stick to itself. • This is why water beads on a smooth surface. #20 pH • Measurement of H+ ions produced by solutions when mixed with water. • A compound that forms H+ ions in water is an acid. Acids are found below 7 on the pH scale. • A compound that produces more OH- ions in water is a base. Bases are found above 7 on the pH scale. #21 Carbohydrate • Contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. • Main source of energy from food. • Sugars and starches #22 Protein • Contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen (sometimes sulfur). • Made of amino acids. • Used for structure, organic catalysts and gene expression. #23 Enzyme • A protein. • Biological catalyst- speeds up chemical reactions in the body. #24 Nucleic Acid • Store and transmit genetic information. • DNA and RNA • Made of nucleotides. #25 Lipid • Used for long-term energy storage, protective coatings and insulation. • Made of a glycerol and three fatty acids. • Fats, oils and waxes. #26 Monomer • Subunit or building block of a larger molecule. • Many monomers bonded together make a polymer. • Polymers are large molecules. #27 Monosaccharide • Monomer of carbohydrates. • Simple sugar. • Glucose, fructose, galactose #28 Amino acid • Monomer of proteins. • 20 different kinds • The order of amino acids that goes in a protein are encoded in DNA. • Has an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH). #29 Nucleotide • Monomer of nucleic acids. • Made of a phosphate group, 5-carbon sugar, and a nitrogen base. # 30 Cell Theory • All living things are made of cells • The cell is the basic unit of life • All cells come from preexisting cells #31 Prokaryote • Cells that do not contain a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. • DNA floats in cytoplasm. • May contain a cell wall. • Ex. Bacteria #32 Eukaryote • Cells that contain a nucleus and membranebound organelles. • Animal and plant cells. #33 Cell Membrane • Outer boundary of the cell, which regulates what enters and exits the cell. • Selectively permeable. • Made of phospholipids and proteins. • “Fluid Mosaic” #34 Ribosome • Site of protein synthesis (translation). • Spherical body found floating in the cytoplasm or attached to endoplasmic reticulum. • Made of rRNA and proteins. #35 Cytoplasm/Cytosol • • • • Fluid matrix inside the cell Many chemical reactions take place here. Organelles float in the cytoplasm. Made mostly of water #36 Nucleus • Controls the activities of the cell • Contains the hereditary information of the cell (DNA) • Surrounded by the nuclear envelope • Contains the nucleolus which makes ribosomes #37 Endoplasmic Reticulum • Set of tubular passageways involved with the transport of molecules in the cell. • Smooth ER- no ribosomes; transports lipids • Rough ER- ribosomes attached; transports proteins #38 Mitochondria • The organelle that releases energy from stored food molecules. • Site of cellular respiration. • Highly folded membranes to increase surface area. #39 Golgi Apparatus • Stack of flattened membranes that processes and packages proteins to be secreted out of the cell #40 Chloroplast • Site of photosynthesis in the plant cell. • Houses chlorophyll. • Made of stacks of thylakoids called grana and inner space called stroma. #41 Lysosome • Small organelles filled with enzymes • Breaks down particles for the cell to use #42 Cytoskeleton • Network of protein filaments that help the cell maintain its shape • Made of microtubules (hollow) and microfilaments (rods) #43 Vacuole • Saclike structures used by the cell to store water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates • Large central vacuole in the plant cells • Small or not present in animal cells #44 Centriole • Only in animal cells • Involved in cell division • Make the spindle that pulls chromosomes apart #45 Cilia & Flagella • Used in cell movement • Cilia- hairlike projection, numerous • Flagella- taillike structures, 1-3 #46 Vesicle • Transport containers for the cell. • Made from the Golgi Apparatus and the cell membrane. #47 Passive Transport • Movement of particles across cell membranes by moving with the concentration gradient. • Diffusion or osmosis. • Uses no energy. #48 Diffusion • Net, random movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. • Eventually results in even distribution. #49 Osmosis • Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. • Depends on the concentration of solutes on either side of the membrane. #50 Osmotic Solutions • Hypotonic solutions- Solutions that have a lower concentration of solute than the solution inside the cell. This causes water to move into the cell and the cell will swell. • Hypertonic solutions- Solutions that have a higher concentration of solute than the solution inside the cell. This causes water to move out of the cell and the cell will shrink. • Isotonic solutions- The solutions inside and outside the cell have the same concentration of solute. The cell does not change shape. #51 Active Transport • Process by which cells transport materials across the cell membrane against a concentration gradient. • Uses energy. #52 Endocytosis • Process of taking material into the cell by means of vesicles. • Pinocytosis- “cell drinking” • Phagocytosis- “cell eating” #53 Exocytosis • The removal of large particles from the cell. • Vesicles fuse with the cell membrane and force contents out of the cell. #54 ATP • Adenosine triphosphate • Stored cellular energy • Made from adding a phosphate to ADP. #55 Photosynthesis • Process by which plants use light energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen. • Happens in the chloroplast. 6CO2 + 6H2O + light C6H12O6 + 6O2 Carbon+water+sunlightGlucose+oxygen Dioxide #56 Cellular Respiration • Breaking down of glucose into usable energy (ATP). • Aerobic • Happens in mitochondria. C6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O + 6CO2 + 36 ATP Glucose +Oxygen Water + Carbon + Energy dioxide #57 Aerobic • Reaction that requires oxygen. • Cellular respiration #58 Anaerobic • Reaction that does not require oxygen. • Fermentation #59 Fermentation • Anaerobic breakdown of organic substances. • Alcoholic- gives of alcohol & carbon dioxide • Lactic acid- gives off lactic acid. #60 Cell Cycle A. G1 B. S M phase C. G2 D. Metaphase #61 Chromosome • Compact form of DNA and protein in the nucleus of a cell about to divide. • Come in homologous pairs in diploid cells. Centromere Sister Chromatids #62 Chromatin • Genetic material that is found in the nucleus of a nondividing cell. • Unwound, stringy form of DNA. #63 Mitosis • Cell division in which two daughter cells are produced, each containing a complete set of chromosomes. • Done by somatic cells. • Diploid cell division. • Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase. #64 Cytokinesis • • • • Division of the cytoplasm. Happens at the end of cell division. Animal cells- pinch inwards; cleavage Plant cells- form cell plate down center of cell #65 Gamete • • • • Sex cells Female- egg cell; Male- sperm Haploid Made during meiosis #66 Haploid • Cell with one of each type of chromosome. • n • Sex cells #67 Diploid • Cell with two of each type of chromosome. • 2n • Somatic cells. #68 Meiosis • Type of cell division in which a body cell produces four sex cells (gametes). • Each gamete contains half the number of chromosomes as the original cell. • All four cells produced are genetically different. #69 Crossing Over • When chromosomes pair up and exchange parts of their chromatids. • This creates genetic variations. • Happens during prophase I. #70 DNA • Deoxyribonucleic acid. • Double stranded, has thymine, has deoxyribose sugar in its nucleotides. • Stores genetic information for all living organisms. #71 RNA • Ribonucleic acid. • Three forms: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA • Single stranded, has uracil instead of thymine, has ribose sugar in its nucleotides. #72 Replication • Process that makes two copies of DNA. • Happens during the S phase of interphase. #73 Translation • Process that uses information on a strand of mRNA to make a protein. • Done at the ribosomes. #74 Transcription • Process that makes RNA from DNA. • Takes place in the nucleus. • Makes mRNA. #75 Mutation • Changes in a DNA sequence that affects genetic information. • Chromosome mutations- nondisjunction, translocation, inversion, deletion, insertion/duplication • Gene mutations-point, frameshift #76 Gene • Small segment of DNA that controls a trait. #77 Allele • The different forms of a gene. • Represented by letters in genetics. Ex. Aa, BB, tt #78 Dominant & Recessive • Dominant alleles will always show up over recessive alleles if both are present. • Dominant represented by capital letter. • Recessive represented by lower case letter. • Only express recessive trait if all alleles present are recessive. #79 Heterozygous • The presence of two different alleles for a trait. • Bb • Carrier of a trait. • Hybrid #80 Homozygous • The presence of two identical alleles. • GG • Purebred #81 Genotype • The combination of genes/alleles in an organism. • Whether they are homozygous or heterozygous. • Ex: BB, pp, Rr #82 Phenotype • Outward appearance of an organism regardless of its genes. • Physical expression of a trait. • The way an organism looks. #83 Inheritance Patterns #1 • Incomplete dominance- neither allele is dominant over the other; heterozygous is a mix • Codominance- both alleles are dominant; the heterozygous shows both traits • Multiple alleles- gene controlled by more than just two alleles #84 Inheritance Patterns #2 • Sex linked-genes that are located on the sex chromosomes; usually passed from mother to son • Polygenic- traits controlled by multiple genes; many different phenotypes #85 Genetic Technology • DNA fingerprinting- Using gel electrophoresis to compare DNA strands from different organisms • Cloning- making genetically identical copies • Transgenic Organisms- implanting genes from another organism #86 Karyotype • A picture of chromosomes arranged with their homologous pairs in order from largest to smallest. • 1-22 are autosomes • 23- sex chromosomes #87 Pedigree • Chart that shows the relationship within a family. • Can be used to show how a gene is passed from one generation to the next. • Males• Females- #88 Spontaneous Generation • Or abiogenesis. • The idea that living things can come from nonliving material. • Disproved. #89 Endosymbiosis • Relationship in which one organism lives within the body of another • Both benefit from the relationship • Ex- bacteria in human intestines #90 Fossil • Preserved remains or evidence of a past organism #91 Evolution • The change in a population over time. • The gathering of adaptations to make a species “better.” • Not a proven theory, but is widely accepted. #92 Vestigial Structure • Structures that are present in organisms, but are functionless. • Indicate change in an organism. • Example: femur (leg bone) in whales and snakes; appendix or coccyx in humans #93 Homologous Structure • Structures that are similar in arrangement and functions, but modified for specific organisms. • Example: Human arm, whale flipper, bat wing (all have the same type of bones and functions, but look different) #94 Adaptation • Characteristic that allows an organism to survive better in its environment. It gives the organism an advantage. • Example: Cacti have thorns instead of leaves to prevent water loss. • Example: Camouflage helps tigers blend into their surroundings so they can hunt prey. #95 Fitness • The ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment. • The strongest, smartest, cleanest individuals are the most fit because that can survive the longest. #96 Gene Pool • All the different genes that are in one population. • Depends on how large the population is to how diverse the genes are. #97 Natural Selection • “Survival of the Fittest” • Process by which individuals that are better suited to their environment survive and reproduce most successfully. • Directional- Disruptive- Stabilizing- #98 Taxonomy • The science of identifying, naming and classifying organisms based on their characteristics. • 7 different levels- Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species #99 Kingdom • Taxonomic group of similar phyla or divisions. • Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Eubacteria, Archaebacteria #100 Phylum • Taxonomic group of similar classes. #101 Class • Taxonomic group of similar orders. #102 Order • Taxonomic group of similar families. #103 Family • Taxonomic group of similar genera. #104 Genus • Firs word of a two-part scientific name used to identify a group of similar species. • Always capitalized. • Example: Panthera leo; Panthera= genus #105 Species • Group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. • Second word of a two-part scientific name. • Not capitalized. • Example: Mus musculus; musculus= species #106 Vertebrate • An animal with a backbone. • Examples: humans, dog, snake #107 Invertebrate • An animal that does not have a backbone. • Example: jellyfish, insects #108 Amphibian • Organisms that develop from aquatic larvae into air breathing, semi-terrestrial adults. • Example: Frogs, salamanders #109 Mammal • Animal characterized by having warmblood, a backbone, nourishing young with milk secreted by mammary glands, and hair on the skin. • Examples: Humans, whales, bears #110 Reptile • Animal that is completely adapted to life on land. Characterized by scaly skin, claws, and a more developed skeletal system than amphibians. • Ectothermic or “cold-blooded” • Examples: snakes, crocodiles, turtles #111 Vascular plant • Plant that contains vascular tissue (xylem & phloem) • Xylem transports water • Phloem transports food • These can be taller #112 Nonvascular plant • Does not contain vascular tissue • Short growing plants such as mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. #113 Angiosperm • Flowering plants • Monocots and dicots #114 Gymnosperm • Plant that produces seeds in cones • Pines, firs #115 Biosphere • Part of the earth where life exists. • Ranges from deep into the earth’s crust to up in the atmosphere. #116 Climate • Overall weather conditions in an area that include temperature and precipitation. #117 Biogeochemical Cycle • Cycle of important elements and compounds through the living and nonliving parts of the ecosystem. • Water cycle, nitrogen cycle, and carbonoxygen cycle, phosphorus cycle #118 Trophic Level • Every step in a food chain or food web. • 1st trophic level is always a producer. #119 Biome • Regions of Earth with characteristic types of plants and animals. • Tundra, Taiga, Temperate Forest, Tropical Rain Forest, Grassland, Desert #120 Niche • The role an organism has in its ecosystem. • Includes feeding and mating habits. #121 Commensalism • Symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed. • +, 0 • Ex. Whales and barnacles #122 Parasitism • Symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits and the other is harmed. • +, • Ex. Tick and dog, tapeworm and human #123 Mutualism • Symbiotic relationship in which both organisms are benefitted. • +,+ • Ex. Lichen, bees and flowers #124 Habitat • The place where an organism lives, finds food and water, mates and is able to survive and reproduce. #125 Carrying Capacity • The largest number of one species that an environment can support. #126 Succession • Series of predictable changes in an ecosystem. • Primary- starts with no soil • Secondary- starts with established soil • Starts with pioneer species. #127 Introduced Species • Species that are introduced to an area that they are not normally found. • Disrupts the natural food web and flow of the ecosystem. • Ex. Kudzu, zebra mussels #128 Biodiversity • The total amount of different species living in an area. • Highest in tropical regions. #129 Limiting Factor • Factors that limit how large a population can grow or where something can live. • Temperature, amount of food, etc. #130 Bacteria • Unicellular, prokaryotes • Archaebacteria (extreme bacteria) or Eubacteria (common bacteria) • Coccus • Bacillus • Spirillum #131 Virus • • • • • Nonliving, but life-like Retrovirus-has RNA instead of DNA Bacteriophage- virus that infects bacteria Lysogenic Cycle- virus is “asleep” in host Lytic Cycle- virus is active in host, kills the host cell