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Transcript
Ethics for the Information Age Chapter 2 – Introduction to Ethics William H. Bowers – [email protected] Topics Introduction Useful Terminology Ethical Theory Overview Subjective Relativism Cultural Relativism Divine Command Theory William H. Bowers – [email protected] Topics Kantianism Act Utilitarianism Rule Utilitarianism Social Contract Theory Comparing Workable Ethical Theories William H. Bowers – [email protected] Introduction Communities facilitate exchange of goods and services Individuals can focus and specialize Specialization engenders higher productivity Communities can be more secure against external threats William H. Bowers – [email protected] Introduction Communities may prohibit some actions and mandate others Not obeying rules results in punishment William H. Bowers – [email protected] Useful Terminology Society – Association of people – Designed to advance good of members – Organized under a system of rules – Rules are known as morality William H. Bowers – [email protected] Useful Terminology Ethics – Study of morality – Rational, systematic analysis of conduct – Focused on voluntary, moral choices – Observation is based on observer’s viewpoint William H. Bowers – [email protected] Ethical Theory Overview Subjective Relativism Cultural Relativism Divine Command Theory Kantianism Act Utilitarianism Rule Utilitarianism Social Contract William H. Bowers – [email protected] Subjective Relativism No universal right or wrong Each person decides what is right or wrong Pros – Allows for disagreement on issues – Ethical debates are pointless William H. Bowers – [email protected] Subjective Relativism Cons – Line between belief and behavior is fuzzy – No moral distinction – Inconsistent to state that I will do what I think is right as long as no one is harmed – Not the same as tolerance – Idea of what is right may be based on anything, not necessarily reason William H. Bowers – [email protected] Cultural Relativism Based on society’s moral guidelines Morals vary between societies Pros – Morals adapt to different social contexts – It is arrogant for one society to judge another – Morality is reflected in behavior William H. Bowers – [email protected] Cultural Relativism Cons – There is no judgment of wrongdoing by other societies – Difficult to know what the society’s morals are – Does not explain evolution of morals – No framework for resolving intercultural moral conflicts – Certain core values do exist – Only indirectly based on reason William H. Bowers – [email protected] Divine Command Theory Based on directions from God Presumes – Good actions are God’s will – We know what God wants us to do Pros – We owe obedience to our Creator – God is good and omniscient – God is the ultimate authority William H. Bowers – [email protected] Divine Command Theory Cons – – – – – – Many holy books disagree with each other Even within the same religion, differences exist Does not work in a multicultural, secular society Some issues are not addressed Good is not necessarily equivalent to God Based on obedience, not reason William H. Bowers – [email protected] Kantianism Actions should be guided by moral laws Moral laws are universal Morality must be based on reason Can explain why something is right or wrong William H. Bowers – [email protected] Kantianism What is always good without qualification? – Intelligence – Courage – Both can be used for wrong purposes Good will is universally good Dutifulness William H. Bowers – [email protected] Kantianism Categorical Imperative – First Formulation – Act only from moral rules that you can at the same time will to be universal moral laws. Categorical Imperative – Second Formulation – Act so that you always treat both yourself and other people as ends in themselves, and never only as a means to an end. William H. Bowers – [email protected] Kantianism Pros – It is rational and explains why something is moral – Produces universal moral guidelines – All people are treated as moral equals Cons – Sometimes a single rule is not enough – Conflicts between rules can not be resolved – There are no exceptions to the moral laws William H. Bowers – [email protected] Act Utilitarianism Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill An action is good if it benefits someone and bad if it harms someone “An action is right (or wrong) to the extent that it increases (or decreases) the total happiness of the affected parties.” Does not examine motives Consequentialist theory William H. Bowers – [email protected] Act Utilitarianism Pros – Focuses on happiness – Straightforward, down to earth, practical – Comprehensive Cons – – – – Difficult to tell where to draw the line Requires a great deal of time and effort Ignored innate sense of duty or obligation Susceptible to the problem of moral luck William H. Bowers – [email protected] Rule Utilitarianism We should adopt those rules that will lead to the greatest increase in total happiness Pros – The evaluation is simpler than act utilitarianism – Not every moral decisions requires analysis – Solves the problem of moral luck William H. Bowers – [email protected] Rule Utilitarianism Cons – Uses a single scale to evaluate different types of consequences – Ignores unjust distribution of good consequences William H. Bowers – [email protected] Social Contract Theory Thomas Hobbes’ Leviathan – Without rules and enforcement people have no incentive to create anything of value as they are not sure they can keep or profit from it – State of nature Cooperation is essential Only possible when common guidelines are followed Moral rules are necessary to insure the ‘benefit of social living’ William H. Bowers – [email protected] Social Contract Theory Requires agreement to – Establishment of a set of moral rules – Government capable of enforcing the rules Rousseau’s The Social Contract – No man has natural authority over others – Force alone bestows no rights – Legitimate authority must be based on agreements William H. Bowers – [email protected] Social Contract Theory Critical problem is finding form of association that – Guarantees everyone safety and property – Enables each person to remain free Rousseau states the answer is for each to give themselves and their rights to the community Community makes and enforces the rules Everyone is equal in the community William H. Bowers – [email protected] Social Contract Theory “Morality consists in the set of rules, governing how people are to treat one another, that rational people will agree to accept, for their mutual benefit, on the condition that others follow those rules as well.” William H. Bowers – [email protected] Social Contract Theory Based on universal moral rules Rules can be derived through a rational process Negative rights Positive rights Absolute rights Limited rights William H. Bowers – [email protected] Social Contract Theory Rawls’s Theory of Justice – Recognizes the harm of concentration of wealth and power – Each person may claim ‘fully adequate rights’ so long as they are consistent with other’s claims to those rights – Social and economic inequalities must be associated with positions that anyone can hold and to be to the ‘greatest benefit to the leastadvantaged’ William H. Bowers – [email protected] Social Contract Theory Pros – Framed in the language of rights – Explains actions of rational people in the absence of a common agreement – Provides clear analysis of the relationship between people and the government William H. Bowers – [email protected] Social Contract Theory Cons – – – – None of use signed the social contract Some actions can be characterized multiple ways Does not resolve conflicting rights May be unjust to those unable to uphold their side of the contract William H. Bowers – [email protected] Comparing Workable Ethical Theories Faced with a moral problem, what is the motivation for taking a particular action? – Kant, social contract – do the right thing – Utilitarian theories – do good How do they determine if an action is ethical or unethical? Is the focus on the individual or the group? William H. Bowers – [email protected] Comparing Workable Ethical Theories Theory Motivation Criteria Focus Kantianism Dutifulness Rules Individual Act Utilitarianism Consequence Actions Group Rule Utilitarianism Consequence/ Duty Rules Group Rules Individual Social Contract Rights William H. Bowers – [email protected] Summary Communities are for mutual benefit Relativistic theories assume people invent morality Subjective relativism assumes that morality is an individual creation Cultural relativism – each society determines its own morality Objectivism – morality already exists, we discover it William H. Bowers – [email protected] Questions & Discussion William H. Bowers – [email protected]
