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Chapter 1: Science of Biology Hypothesis- a guess on how something works based off of information that is know and information that is unknown Controlled experiment- an experiment where one variable is changed at a time Theory- well tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations Metabolism- The process of breaking down or building up materials to maintain life Stimulus- Something that an organism responds to Homeostasis- fairly constant state maintained by an organis, Microscope: device that produces magnified images of structures that are too small to see with the unaided eye Biology- Study of life Cell –basic unit of life Evolution- change over time Science- a organized way of using evidence to learn about the natural world. Ch. 2: The Chemistry of Life Atom- Means unable to be cut, Basic unit of matter Element- a pure substance made up of one type of atom Isotope- Atoms of the same element with a different number of neutrons Compound- a substance with more than one type atom or element Ionic bond- Bond that is formed between ions Covalent bond- formed by sharing electrons Molecule- combination of two or more atoms covalently bonded Mixture- substances are physically put together, but not chemically bound Solution- Mixture in which molecules are evenly distributed Ph scale- measures H+ concentration, 7 neutral/ below 7 acidic/ above 7 basic Carbohydrate- major source of energy for humans/ made up of carbon/ hydrogen/ and oxygen Lipid- Fats/oils/ and waxes/ used to store energy Nucleic Acid- DNA/ RNA- made of nucleotides Protein- your traits, includes enzymes. Enzyme- a protein that speeds up the rate of reactions, catalyst Fatty acid- monomer of a lipid DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid; carries genetic info RNA- ribonucleic acid; made from DNA and carries the code for making the protein Polymer- made from putting monomers together (carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) Monosaccharide- a single sugar; ring form; glucose is an example Nucleotide- the monomer of a nucleic acid; made of phosphate group, sugar and N base Acid- has a high concentration of H+ ions. pH of 0-6 Base- has a high concentration of OH- ions. pH of 8-14 Ch. 3 The Biosphere Ecology- studies of interactions between organisms and between organisms and their environment Biosphere- portion of the earth where life exists, land water, and air 8 km above/ 11 km below Species- very similar organisms that can produce fertile offspring Population- group of same species organisms that live in the same area Community- groups of populations that live in a defined area Ecosystem- Community + nonliving factors/ environment Autotroph- produces their own energy Photosynthesis- making energy by using light Chemosynthesis- making energy for chemical energy Heterotroph- has to get energy for other sources Decomposer- breaks down organic material Food Chain- steps in which energy is transferred from one organism to another Food Web- network of food chains Nutrient- chemical substances an organism needs to survive Nitrogen Fixation- bacteria fix nitrogen from the air into the soil Limiting nutrient- nutrient that limits the growth of an organism or ecosystem Ecological Pyramid- diagram that shows the relative amounts of energy or matter within each trophic level in a food chain or food web. Ch. 4 The Role of the Climate Green house effect- heat is kept in the earth by a blanket of gases Habitat- both non-living and living factors Niche- physical and biological conditions in which an organism lives and the way in which the organism uses these factors Resource-any necessity of life: water, food, space Competitive exclusion principle- no two species can occupy the same niche in the place at the same time Symbiosis- organisms closely live together Ecological succession- process where a community changes over time Biome- complex terrestrial (on land) communities that cover a large area and is characterized by certain soil and climate conditions and particular assemblages of plants and animals Ch. 5 Populations Population Density- number of individuals per unit area Carrying Capacity—number of species an environment can support Exponential Growth- J curve- individuals reproduce at a constant rate Logistic Growth- S curve- Exponential growth followed by a slowing or stopping period Limiting Factor- factor that limits the population growth; decrease Ch. 6: Humans in the Biosphere Invasive species- species introduced into a new habitat and often compete with native species for resources. Global warming- increase in the earths temperature Ozone layer-layer above earth’s surface that is made of O3 (ozone) that keeps harmful UV rays from reaching earth’s surface. Ch. 7 Cells Eukaryote- More complex cells with a nucleus Prokaryote- simple cells without a nucleus Organelle- small organ like structures in cells Chromosome- Tight coil of DNA Ribosome- assembles proteins Endoplasmic reticulum- Internal transport system for materials made by cells. Golgi apparatus- Modifies, sorts and packages proteins storage or secretion Lysosome- Little sacs full of enzymes, digestion Vacuole- Holds Water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates Mitochondrion- Power plant of the cell, ATP is made here Chloroplast- Converts light energy to chemical energy, Sugar. Cell membrane- Lipid bilayer, which contains the cell Cell wall- provides protection for the cell, in plants Diffusion- the movement of molecules across a gradient Osmosis- diffusion of water across semi-permeable membrane. Facilitated diffusion- diffusion that uses a protein to move molecules without energy Active transport- using energy to gain molecules within a cell, against the concentration gradient. ATP- Energy Cell- basic unit of life Exocytosis- process of materials leaving a cell in bulk Endocytosis- process of materials entering a cell in bulk Cell specialization- cells perform specific functions related to their structure Hypotonic solution- concentration of solutes is greater inside a cell than out. Water moves in. Hypertonic solution- concentration of solutes is greater outside the cell than in. Water moves out. Isotonic- concentration of solutes is equal in a outside the cell. Water moves in both directions. Ch. 10 Cell Growth Mitosis- part of cell division where the nucleus divides Cytokinesis- division of cytoplasm, two new cells form Chromatid- one of two identical parts of a duplicated chromosome Centromere- Holds chromatids together Interphase- period inbetween cell divisions Cell cycle- cycle of a cell getting ready to divide and then dividing Prophase- chromosomes become visible, centrioles separate, and nuclear envelope breaks down Centriole- produces spindle fibers which connect to centromere, only in animal cells. Spindle (fiber)- connect to centromere and help separate chromatids Metaphase- chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell, Anaphase- chromatids separate and head towards opposite ends of the cell Telophase- chromosomes are at separate ends nuclear envelope begins to form Cyclin- Regulates the cell cycle Cancer- Uncontrolled growth of cells Ch. 11: Introduction to genetics Genetics- the study of heredity Gene- located on chromosomes, made of DNA Allele- different forms of a gene (A,a) Trait- specific characteristic Gamete- sex cell; sperm/egg Fertilization- sperm and egg join during sexual reproduction Homozygous- same (AA, aa) Heterozygous-different (Aa) Genotype- genetic makeup (AA, Aa, aa) Phenotype- physical appearance, protein made Meiosis- process of making sex cells with half genetic info Haploid- 1 set of chromosomes (sex cells), n Diploid- 2 sets of chromosome (body cells), 2n Polygenic- 2 or more genes determining a trait (hair color, eye color, skin color) Crossing over- occurs during Prophase 1 of meiosis and allows for variation among organisms. Incomplete dominance- one allele is not dominant over another, blended. Red and white = pink Codominance- Both alleles are fully expressed. Blood type AB Indepdendent assortment- gene pairs separate randomly and independently of each other during meiosis. Multiple alleles- there are more than 2 alleles in a population. Blood type: A,B,O Ch. 12 DNA and RNA Nucleotide- nucleic acid made up of a 5 carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and nitrogenous base Base pairing- bond only form between Adenine and thymine, and cytosine and guanine Chromatin- DNA and protein Replication- process in which DNA is duplicated Messenger RNA- RNA molecule that carries copies of instructions for the assembly amino acids into proteins Ribosomal RNA- makes up the major portion of ribosomes Transfer RNA- transfers amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis Transcription- DNA is copied to a complementary piece of RNA Codon- three nucleotide sequence on messenger RNA that codes for a single amino acid Translation- decoding of mRNA message into a polypeptide chain Anticodon- Complementary message on tRNA of mRNA mutation- Change of genetic material Differentiation- process of cells being specialized and having different functions based on structure DNA polymerase- enzyme used in DNA replication that attaches free nucleotides to the strand. RNA polymerase- enzymes used in transcription that attaches free RNA nucleotides to make new RNA strand. Ch. 13: Genetic Engineering Selective Breeding (artificial selection)- mating two organisms for desired traits Genetic Engineering- manipulating genes for desired traits Clone- exact copy of an organism Ch 14: The Human Genome\ Autosome- non sex chromosome 1-22 Pedigree- chart used to show traits passed among family members Kayotype- chromosomes stained and sorted for viewing of genetic disorders or sex determination Sex- Linked Gene- located on X chromosome (Y only carries SRY gene for male determination) Nondisjuntion- chromosomes fail to separate properly during meiosis. Get 1 or 3 copies of a chromosome instead of 2. Sex chromosome- X,Y, (number 23) Ch. 15: Evolution Evolution- Change over time, modern organisms arose from ancient ones Theory- well supported testable explanation of phenomena Artificial selection- Humans select animals that can reproduce Fitness- Ability to survive and reproduce in a specific environment Adaptation- inherited characteristic that increases an organism’s chance at survival Natural selection- better suited organisms survive and reproduce, weaker one’s don’t. Survival of the fittest Homologous structure- different mature forms, but develop from the same embryonic tissues. Evidence of relationship. Arm of bat, human, turtle. Vestigial organ- Organ that has no useful function remains of a once used organ. Analogous structures- same form, different function. Wings of butterfly and insect. NOT related. Adaptation- INHERITED traits that increases organism chance of survival Ch. 16 Evolutions of Populations Gene pool- All genes that are present in a population Relative Frequency- # of times an allele is present compared to other alleles of the same gene occur Single-gene trait- Only one gene controls a trait Polygenic trait- controlled by many genes. Shown by a bell curve. Directional selection- Organisms at one end of the curve have higher fitness than those in the middle, Range of phenotypes shifts Stabilizing selection- middle of curve has higher fitness, curve narrows Disruptive selection- both ends have higher fitness Genetic drift- small population, random change in alleles Genetic Equilibrium- gene frequencies remain constant Speciation- formation of a new species Reproductive isolation- separation of species or populations so that they can’t interbreed and produce fertile offspring Ch. 18 Classification Phylogeny- tree of life showing how closely related organisms are Evolutionary Classification- grouping organism based on evolutionary relationships Taxonomy- naming and identifying organisms Kingdom- largest group of classification- 6 Linneaus- person who made modern day classification system. Father of taxonomy Eubacteria- Kingdom. True- bacteria Archeabacteria- Kingdom- Ancient bacteria. Live in extreme environments Protista- Kingdom of Misfits: Plant-like, animal-like and fungus-like. Eukayotic, unicellular or multicellular. Fungi- Kingdom of mushrooms. Eukayotic, unicellular or multicellular. Animalia- Kingdom of Animals Plantae- Kingdom of Plants Binominal nomenclature- Genus species. 2 name, naming system by Linneaus. Genus- a group of related species Species- the most specific taxon. All of the same kind. Ch. 19 Bacteria Prokaryote- simple cells without a nucleus Chemoautotroph- produces their own energy using chemicals Chemoheterotroph- get energy from chemicals (humans) Photoautotroph- make own energy with light (plants) Photohetertroph- get energy from light source and other chemical compounds Virus- nonliving pathogen Pathogen- disease causing agent Vaccine- weakened or killed strain of pathogen given for body build own immunity. Antibiotic- given to inhibit reproduction of living pathogens in the body. Aerobe- needs oxygen to survive Ch. 40 The Immune System Disease- any change, other than injury, that disrupts the normal body functions Allergy- adverse reactive to a substance that is not harmful in itself. Immune system over-reacts. Immunity- Body’s natural defense against pathogens. Immune Response- specific to the pathogen it is fighting. Cell-mediated (T Cells) or Humoral (B cells) Pathogen- disease causing agent Vector- organism used to spread disease (deer tick- lime disease) Antigen- anything that elicits the immune response Antibody- protein (Y shaped) that is used in the humoral immune response to fight specific pathogens Antibiotic- given to inhibit reproduction of living pathogens in the body Inflammatory Response- non-specific defense reaction to tissue damage caused by injury or infection. 2nd line of defense