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The Human Body in Health and Disease Chapter 2 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY •Body anatomy: made up of increasing larger and more complex structural units •Cells tissues organs the body systems Body Systems Skeletal Urinary Muscular Nervous Cardiovascular Special Lymphatic Immune Respiratory Digestive Senses Integumentary Endocrine Reproductive CELLS •The basic structural and functional units of the body •They specialize and group together to form tissues and organs •Cytology – the study of the anatomy, physiology, pathology and chemistry of the cell The Structure of Cells Cell Membrane – the tissue that surrounds and protects the contents of the cell by separating them from its external environment Cytoplasm – material within the cell membrane that is not part of the nucleus Nucleus – surrounded by a nuclear membrane; a structure within the cell that has two important fxns: Controls the activities of the cell Helps the cell divide Stem Cells Unspecialized cells that are able to renew themselves for long pds of x by cell division In contrast to other cell types that have a specialized role and die after a determined lifespan Under certain conditions stem cells can be transformed into cells with special fxns such as the cells of the heart m that make the heartbeat possible or the specialized cells of the pancreas that are capable of producing insulin Adult Stem Cells Somatic Stem Cells; undifferentiated (no special fxn) cells found among differentiated (have a specialized fxn) cells in a tissue or organ Maintain and repair the tissue in which they are found Have the potential to be transplanted from one individual to another Found in donor’s bone marrow Has to be an excellent match between donor and recipient Graft versus host disease Embryonic Stem Cells Undifferentiated! Unlike an specific adult cell; have the ability to form ANY adult cell!!! Grow rapidly and indefinitely in a lab and could potentially provide a source for adult m, liver, bone, or blood cells They are more primitive than adult stem cells, therefore a perfect match is not required Found in cord blood in the umbilical cord and placenta Can also be obtained from surplus embryos produced by in vitro (test tube) fertilization •GENETICS •Gene – a fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity •Control hereditary disorders and all physical traits such as hair, skin and eye color •Genetics – the study of how genes transfer from parent to child(ren) and the role of genes in health and disease •Dominant and Recessive Genes • Each newly formed individual receives two genes of each genetic trait: one from the father, one from the mother • • • Dominant Gene – the offspring will inherit that genetic condition A recessive gene inherited from both parents means the offspring will have that condition A recessive gene from only one parent, and a normal gene from the other parent, the offspring will not have the condition • Dominant Gene: ex – freckles are a dominant trait • Recessive sickle cell + recessive sickle cell = child WILL HAVE sickle cell • Recessive sickle cell + normal cell = child WILL NOT HAVE sickle cell, but will carry the trait • The Human Genome • Genome – the complete set of genetic information of an individual • The Human Genome Project was formed to study this genetic code in all people and throughout the world • Found that over 99% of the genetic code is the same among human beings throughout the world •Chromosomes • Chromosomes – the genetic structures located within the nucleus of each cell • Made up of DNA molecules that contain the body’s genes – helps keel a lg amount of info neat, organized, and compact • Somatic Cell – any cell in the body other than gametes (sex cells) – 46 chromosomes arranged into 23 pairs; 22 identical pairs and one other… either XX or XY (fem/male) • Sex Cell – gamete; only type of cell that does not contain 46 chromosomes – each ovum (egg) or sperm has a single set of 23 chromosomes… in a female, one will be an X and in a male one will be an X or Y; the X or Y from the father determines the sex of the child •DNA • DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid; the basic structure of the DNA molecule Packaged on a chromosome as 2 spiraling strands that twist together to form a double helix; looks like a spiral staircase and consists of 2 strands twisted together • Found in the nucleus of every cell except RBCs • DNA is different for every individual and no two patterns are the same… EXCEPT??? Identical TWINS! (formed from 1 fertilized egg that divides) identical genetic make up, but individual finger prints and other characteristics • •Genetic Mutation • Genetic mutation – a change in the sequence of a DNA molecule (radiation or environmental pollution may be a cause) • Somatic cell mutation – a change within the cells of the body; affect the individual but cannot be transmitted to the next generation • Gametic cell mutation – a change within the genes in a gamete that can be transmitted by parent to his/her child • Genetic Engineering – manipulating or splicing of genes for scientific or medical purposes •Genetic Disorders • Genetic Disorder – hereditary disorder; a pathological condition caused by an absent or defective gene Cystic Fibrosis (CF) – a genetic disorder that is present at birth and affects both the respiratory and digestive systems • Down Symdrome (DS) – a genetic variation that is associated with characteristic facial appearance, leaning disabilities, and physical abnormalities • Hemophilia – a group of hereditary disorders in which a blood-clotting factor is missing • • Huntington’s Disease (HD) – a genetic disorder that is passed from parent to child • Each child has a 50-50 chance of inheriting the defective gene (causes nerve degeneration = uncontrolled movements and the loss of some mental abilities) Muscular Dystrophy – the term used to describe a group of genetic diseases that are characterized by progressive weakness and degeneration of the skeletal mm that control movement • Phenylketonuria – PKU; a genetic disorder in which the essential digestive enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase is missing • Tay-Sachs Disease – a fatal genetic disorder in which harmful quantities of a fatty substance build up in tissues and nerve cells in the brain • TISSUES •Tissue – a group or layer of similarly specialized cells that join together to perform certain specific functions •4 Types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nerve •Histology – the study of the structure, composition, and function of tissues •Histologist – a specialist in the study of the organization of tissues at all levels Epithelial Tissues Epithelial Tissues – form a protective covering for all of the internal and external surfaces of the body Epithelium – the specialized epithelial tissue that forms the epidermis of the skin and the surface layer of mucous membranes Endothelium – the specialized epithelial tissue that lines the blood and lymph vessels, body cavities, glands and organs Connective Tissues Connective Tissues – support and connect organs and other body tissues. 4 Kinds: Dense Connective Tissues – bone and cartilage, form joints and the framework of the body Adipose Tissue – fat; provides protection, padding, insulation, and support Loose Connective Tissue – surrounds various organs and supports both nerve cells and blood vessels Liquid Connective Tissues – blood and lymph Muscle Tissue Muscle Tissue – contains cells with the specialized ability to contract and relax Nerve Tissue Nerve Tissue – contains cells with the specialized ability to react to stimuli and to conduct electrical impulses Pathology of Tissue Formation Frequently due to unknown causes, can occur before birth as the tissues are forming, or appear later in life Incomplete Tissue Formation Aplsia – the defective development, or the congenital absence of an organ or tissue (awithout, -plasia formation) Hypoplasia – the incomplete development of an organ or tissue usually die to a deficiency in the number of cells (hypo- low) Abnormal Tissue Formation Anaplasia – a change in the structure of cells and in their orientation to each other (anaexcessive)… characteristic of cancer Dysplasia – an abnormal development of growth or cells, tissues, or organs (dys- bad) Hyperplasia – the enlargement of an organ or tissue because of an abnormal increase in the number of cells in the tissues Hypertrophy – a general increase in the bulk of a body part or organ that is due to an increase in the size but not in the number of cells in the tissues (-trophy development) GLANDS Gland – a group if specialized epithelial cells that are capable of producing secretions Exocrine Glands – secrete chemical substances into ducts that lead either to other organs or out of the body Endocrine Glands – shave no ducts; instead, release hormones into the bloodstream Pathology and Procedures of the Glands Adenitis – inflammation of a gland (aden/ogland) Adenocarcinoma – a malignant tumor that originates in glandular tissue Adenoma – a benign tumor that arises in, or resembles, glandular tissue Adenomalacia – the abnormal softening of a gland Adenosis – any disease condition of a gland Adenosclerosis – the abnormal hardening of a gland Adenectomy – the surgical removal of a gland BODY SYSTEMS AND RELATED ORGANS A body organ is a somewhat independent part of the body that performs a specific function PATHOLOGY Pathology – the study of the nature and cause of disease that involves changes in structure and function Pathologist – specializes in the laboratory analysis of tissue samples to confirm or establish a diagnosis Can be removed in biopsies, during operations, or in postmortem exams Etiology disease – the study of the cause of Disease Transmission A pathogen is a disease-producing microorganism Transmission is the spread of disease Contamination means that a pathology is possibly present Communicable Disease – contagious disease; any condition that is transmitted from one person to another either by direct or indirect contact with a contaminated object Indirect Contact Transmission – refers to situations in which a susceptible person is infected by contact with a contaminated surface Bloodborne Transmission – the spread of disease through contact with blood or other body fluids that are contaminated with blood (HIV, STDs, HepB) Airborne Transmission – occurs through contact with contaminated respiratory droplets spread by a cough or sneeze Food-borne and Waterborne Transmission – fecal-oral transmission; caused by eating or drinking contaminated food or water that has not been properly treated to remove contamination or kill pathogens that are present Vector-borne Transmission – is the spread of a certain disease due to the bite of a vector Flies, mites, fleas, ticks, rats and dogs Outbreaks of Diseases Epidemilogist – a specialist in the study of outbreaks of disease within a population Endemic – the ongoing presence of a disease within a population, group or area Epidemic – is a sudden and wide-spread outbreak of disease within a specific population, group or area Pandemic – an outbreak of a disease ocurring over a large geographic area, possibly world wide Types of Disease Functional Disorder – produces symptoms for which no physiological or anatomical cause can be identified (panic attack) Iatrogenic Disease – an unfavorable response due to prescribed medical tx (burns from radiation tx) Idiopathic Disorder – illness without known cause Nosocomial Infection – a disease acquired in the hospital or clinic setting (MRSA) Organic Disorder – produces symptoms caused by detectable physical changes in the body (chickenpox) Anatomic Reference Systems