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The Roman Empire From Republic to Empire By the 2nd century BC, the Senate had become the real governing power of the Roman state. II. The Senate and government offices were increasingly controlled by a small circle of wealthy and powerful landowning families. III. Over time, small farmers had found that they were unable to compete with large landowners and had lost their farms. IV. As a result, many of these small farmers drifted to the cities forming a large class of landless poor. I. V. Two brothers from the aristocracy urged the council of the plebs to pass reforms to take public land held by large landowners, and give it to the landless Romans. VI. A group of senators, who owned large areas of public land, killed one brother, and later the other, for attempting reforms. VII. In 107 BC, a Roman general began to recruit for his army, the urban and rural poor who owned no property, and promised them land. VIII.These soldiers swore and oath of loyalty to the general, not the Roman state, and this created armies not under government control. IX. Eventually a general named Sulla seized control of Rome when the Senate tried to replace him. X. Sulla conducted a reign of terror to wipe out all opposition, but then he restored power to the Senate believing he restored order. XI. However, Sulla’s example of using the army to seize power proved attractive to ambitious men. XII. One of these men would be Crassus, the Roman politician and general who, in 71 BC, defeated the slave army led by Spartacus. The First Triumvirate I. In 60 BC, three men, Crassus, Pompey, and Julius Caesar, formed the First Triumvirate, an unofficial political alliance which exerted considerable influence within the Republic. Julius Caesar The First Triumvirate I. In 60 BC, three men, Crassus, Pompey, and Julius Caesar, formed the First Triumvirate, an unofficial political alliance which exerted considerable influence within the Republic. II. During Caesar’s conquest of Gaul, as many as a million people died, the entire population of an entire city, 40,000 were slaughtered and another million were enslaved. III. And because of his conquest of Gaul, Caesar was granted command of Gaul, and achieved distinction as a military leader and an army of loyal veterans due to his success there. IV. Caesar’s military career in Gaul is still studied at military academies, including West Point. V. In 53 BC, Crassus is killed in battle, and the Senate voted that Pompey to rule as the sole consul. VI. It was then that Pompey and the Senate ordered that Caesar quit his command. VII. Instead, Caesar took his army into Italy and illegal crossed the Rubicon River, today the phrase “crossing the Rubicon” means that there is no turning back. IV. Caesar’s military career in Gaul is still studied at military academies, including West Point. V. In 53 BC, Crassus is killed in battle, and the Senate voted that Pompey to rule as the sole consul. VI. It was then that Pompey and the Senate ordered that Caesar quit his command. VII. Instead, Caesar took his army into Italy and illegal crossed the Rubicon River, today the phrase “crossing the Rubicon” means that there is no turning back. VIII.Caesar’s army defeated Pompey’s army, and afterwards Pompey sought refuge in Egypt, where he was assassinated. IX. In 45 BC, Caesar was proclaimed dictator for life, and began a program of reforms including the creation of the Julian calendar and giving land to the poor. X. In 44 BC, on the Ides of March (15th), as Caesar arrived at the Senate, he was presented with a petition by a senator to recall his exiled brother. XI. Several senators, including Cassius and his friend Brutus, had conspired to assassinate Caesar, and feigning support for the approval of the petition, they encircled Caesar,. IX. In 45 BC, Caesar was proclaimed dictator for life, and began a program of reforms including the creation of the Julian calendar and giving land to the poor. X. In 44 BC, on the Ides of March (15th), as Caesar arrived at the Senate, he was presented with a petition by a senator to recall his exiled brother. XI. Several senators, including Cassius and his friend Brutus, had conspired to assassinate Caesar, and feigning support for the approval of the petition, they encircled Caesar. XII. Within moments, the senators began striking Caesar with daggers, he was stabbed 23 times. The Second Triumvirate After Caesar’s death, a Second Triumvirate was created by Mark Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian, Caesar’s grandnephew and heir. II. The Triumvirate crushed the armies of Cassius and Brutus who were also trying to seize power. III. Eventually another power struggle ensued in which Octavian defeated Mark Antony and his ally, Cleopatra VII of Egypt, resulting in Egypt becoming a Roman province. IV. Cleopatra had been Caesar’s lover, she then became Antony’s ally, then lover, and Antony fell madly in love with her. I. Cleopatra IV. To avoid capture by Octavian’s army, Antony committed suicide by stabbing himself with his own sword with the belief that Cleopatra had already done so. V. When he found out that Cleopatra was still alive, his friends brought him to Cleopatra's monument in which she was hiding, and he died in her arms, she later VI. Octavian proclaimed the “restoration of the Republic,” and the Senate granted him the title imperator, or commander in chief, and Octavian became the first Roman emperor. VII. In 27 BC, the Senate awarded Octavian the title of Augustus, meaning “the revered one.” Augustus The Pantheon VIII.Augustus created a new political situation in which the emperor could name his successor. IX. The next four emperor’s took more and more power, while at the same time becoming more corrupt, extravagant, and unstable. Caligula Nero VIII.Augustus created a new political situation in which the emperor could name his successor. IX. The next four emperor’s took more and more power, while at the same time becoming more corrupt, extravagant, and unstable. X. Following them were a series of six emperors in a 19 year period (list of Roman Emperors). The Circus Maximus The Colosseum The Colosseum Today VIII.Augustus created a new political situation in which the emperor could name his successor. IX. The next four emperor’s took more and more power, while at the same time becoming more corrupt, extravagant, and unstable. X. Following them were a series of six emperors in a 19 year period (list of Roman Emperors). XI. Then in the 2nd century AD, there was a series of 5 good emperor’s who created a period of peace and prosperity known as Pax Romana. XII. These emperors created new programs to help people, such as Emperor Trajan who provided state funds to assist poor parents in the raising and education of their children. XII. Trajan expanded the Empire to its greatest extent, 3.5 million sq. miles with a population of around 55 million people, and implemented the construction of many public works. XIII.Hadrian constructed Hadrian’s Wall, erected many fine buildings, and codified Roman law. Hadrian’s Wall XII. Trajan expanded the Empire to its greatest extent, 3.5 million sq. miles with a population of around 55 million people, and implemented the construction of many public works. XIII.Hadrian constructed Hadrian’s Wall, erected many fine buildings, and codified Roman law. XIV.Cities were run by Roman agents which spread both Roman and Greek culture. XV. Latin was spoken in the western part of the empire, and Greek in the eastern part. XVI.Also, the Romans excelled at engineering and architecture, and they built buildings structures, and monuments throughout the Empire that reflected this ability. Roman Aqueducts The Roman Baths of Caracalla Roman Villa Hypocaust Roman Villa Mosaic from Hadrian’s Villa Roman Apartments The Forum The Basilica Pompeii The Birth of Christianity By 6 AD, the Jewish Kingdom of Judea, had become a Roman province, which later would be renamed Palestine by Hadrian. Unrest against Roman rule was widespread in Judea, and there was disagreement amongst the Jews whether to cooperate or resists. A Jewish revolt that began in 66AD, was crushed by the Romans and resulted in the temple in Jerusalem being destroyed. A few decades before the revolt, a Jewish prophet known as Jesus of Nazareth, traveled and preached throughout Judea and Galilee. Jesus used parables, seemingly simple stories that taught humility, charity, and love toward others, which would shape the value system of Western civilization. Jesus’ preaching eventually stirred controversy, and those who opposed him turned him over to Roman authorities, who in the end would put Jesus to death by crucifixion. Jesus used parables, seemingly simple stories that taught humility, charity, and love toward others, which would shape the value system of Western civilization. Jesus’ preaching eventually stirred controversy, and those who opposed him turned him over to Roman authorities, who in the end would put Jesus to death by crucifixion. After his death, his followers claimed he had arisen from the dead and appeared to them. As word of his resurrection spread, a movement within Judaism began, winning over believers. It was believed that Jesus was the Messiah, the expected deliverer who would save the Jewish people from their foes. The Greek translation of Messiah is Christ, meaning anointed, so the followers of Jesus became known as Christians. In the Hebrew Bible, a messiah is a Jewish king who will rule the united tribes of Israel, and herald a Messianic Age of global peace. However, Jesus’ followers believed that his purpose was to provide spiritual salvation. This was the main source of the rift which would separate Christianity from Judaism, even though they both share the same origin. The Spread of Christianity After Jesus’ death, apostles, or leaders, emerged in the Christian movement, two of the most prominent being Paul and Peter. The center of Paul’s message was that Jesus was the Savior, or Son of God, who through his death made up for the sins of humanity. And by accepting Jesus as their Christ and Savior, people could be saved from their sins. Through the course of traveling to spread the word of Christ, Peter went to Rome where he is said to have been put to death by Nero. Peter is said to have been crucified, the cross being placed upside down at his own request, since he saw himself unworthy to be crucified in the same way as Jesus. Peter is said to have been crucified, the cross being placed upside down at his own request, since he saw himself unworthy to be crucified in the same way as Jesus. At first the Romans paid little attention to the Christians as Romans were generally tolerate of other religions, but eventually Christians came to be viewed as dangerous because they refused to worship the gods and emperor. This was seen as an act of treason, punishable by death, and the Romans began to persecute Christians. Christians were subjected to cruel deaths, especially under Nero, such as being fed to lions in the Colosseum. Christians were subjected to cruel deaths, especially under Nero, such as being fed to lions in the Colosseum. The persecutions culminated under the reign of Diocletian, from 284 to 305, when over 20,000 Christians are thought to have died. However, as Diocletian zealously persecuted Christians in the eastern part of the empire, in the west, Christians in Gaul, Spain, and Britannia were virtually unmolested. Christianity became popular because, unlike the impersonal Roman state religion, it was personal, offered salvation, and eternal life. Christianity proved attractive to all classes of society, but especially to the poor and powerless. Christianity helped fulfill the human need to belong, in a way that the huge Roman Empire could not. Christians formed communities in which people were bound to one another, for in these communities, people expressed love, helped one another, and gave assistance to the poor and sick.