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Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Information Processing and Vygotsky’s Approach to Cognitive Development The Growth of Language and Learning Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Preoperational Thinking Preoperational Time of stability Stage and change Use of operations at end of stage Relationship Between Language and Thought Symbolic function – Ability to use symbols, words, or object to represent something that is not physically present Language allows preschoolers to During the preoperational period children begin to imagine the future. – Represent actions symbolically – Think beyond present to future – Consider several possibilities at same time Centration Which row contains more buttons? Which row has more buttons? Conservation What you see is NOT always what you get! Incomplete Understanding of Transformation Preoperational children • Unable to envision successive transformations • Ignore middle steps Egocentrism Preschoolers do not understand that others have different perspectives from their own Egocentric thought takes two forms – Lack of awareness that others see things from a different physical perspective – Failure to realize that others may hold thoughts, feelings, and points of view that differ from theirs Emergence of Intuitive Thought Curiosity blossoms and answers to a wide variety of questions are sought • Often act as authorities on particular topics • Leads preschoolers to believe that they know answers to all kinds of questions, but there is little or no logical basis for this confidence Late Stages of Intuitive Thought Slowly certain qualities prepare children for more sophisticated forms of reasoning – Begin to understand the notion of functionality – Begin to show an awareness of the concept of identity Evaluating Piaget’s Approach Positive Negative • Masterful observer • More recent experimental work suggests higher child performance on tasks involving conservation, reversibility, transformation, and ability to count • Useful way to consider progressive advances in child cognition • Contentions about continuity of development as theorized in Piaget’s stages According to Piaget, children in the preoperational stage develop symbolic function, a qualitative change in their thinking that is the foundation of further cognitive advances. Preoperational children are hampered by a tendency toward egocentric thought. Recent developmentalists, while acknowledging Piaget’s gifts and contributions, take issue with his underestimation of preschoolers’ capabilities. Children in Piaget’s preoperational stage begin using symbolic thinking; however, they are not capable of ______________, or organized, logical mental processes that characterize schoolchildren. a. operations b. transcendence c. levitation d. egocentric thought Egocentric thought can involve (1) the lack of awareness that others see things from a different physical perspective and (2) ______________. a. the inability to present their own perspectives to others b. their unwillingness to consider how their perspectives have been consistent over time c. failure to realize that others may hold thoughts, feelings, and points of view that differ from theirs d. that preoperational children are intentionally selfish and inconsiderate Piaget’s perspective has been criticized by others because he overestimated children’s abilities. • True • False Do you think it is possible to break a preschooler’s habit of egocentric thought by directly teaching him to take another person’s point of view? Would showing him a picture of himself “hidden” behind a chair change his thinking? Why? Information Processing and Vygotsky’s Approach to Cognitive Development Focus of Approaches • Changes in kinds of “mental programs” that children use when approaching problems • Changes are analogous to the way a computer program becomes more sophisticated as a programmer modifies it on basis of experience Two Approaches 1, 2, 3, 7…11-T-hundred! How can we tell when a preschooler knows how to count? You must remember this…maybe! Recollections of events are sometimes, but not always, accurate – Typically accurate in responses to openended questions – Partly determined by how soon memories are assessed – Affected by cultural factors This preschooler may recall this ride in 6 months, but by the time he is 12, it will probably be forgotten. Can you explain why? Autobiographical memory – Largely inaccurate before age 3 – Not all memories last into later life Why are some preschool memories inaccurate? Preschoolers’ memories of familiar events often organized in scripts • Scripts become more elaborate with age. • Frequently repeated events meld into scripts. • Particular instances of scripted event are recalled with less accuracy than those that are unscripted in memory. Any other causes of inaccuracies? Difficulty describing certain kinds of information, such as complex causal relationships, may oversimplify recollections SHE did it…I think!! Children’s Eyewitness Testimony Forensic developmental psychology • Embellishment characteristic of fragility, impressionability, and inaccuracy of memory • Memories susceptible to suggestions of adults asking them questions, especially repeatedly • Children more prone to make inaccurate inferences about reasons behind others’ behavior and are less able to draw appropriate conclusions based on their knowledge of a situation • Error rate is heightened when same question is asked repeatedly Information Processing in Perspective PRO • Relies on well-defined testable, processes which alternative approaches traditionally have paid little attention • Provides a clear, logical, and full account of cognitive development CON • Focuses on series of single, individual cognitive processes • Individual sequence of processes never adequately paint whole, comprehensive picture of cognitive development Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive Development • Cognition is the result of social interactions in which children learn through guided participation • Children gradually grow intellectually and begin to function on their own because of assistance that adult and peer partners provide Culture and Society Influences Nature of the partnership between developing children and adults and peers determined largely by cultural and societal factors Russian developmental psychologist Lev Vygotsky proposed that the focus of cognitive development should be on child’s social and cultural world Zone of Proximal Development • Cognition increases through exposure to information that is new enough to be intriguing, but not too difficult • Greater improvement with help = greater increases in zone of proximal development Scaffolding • Supports learning and problem solving that encourages independence and growth • Aids in development of overall cognitive abilities Cultural Tools Actual, physical items or intellectual and conceptual framework for solving problems – Language – Alphabetical and numbering schemes – Mathematical and scientific systems – Religious systems Assessing Vygotsky’s Perspective PRO • Increasingly influential in the last decade • Helps explain growing body of research about importance of social interaction in promoting cognitive development • Consistent with growing body of multicultural and cross-cultural research CON • Lack of precision in conceptualization of cognitive growth • Sparse information about attention and memory develop and how children’s natural cognitive capabilities unfold Proponents of information processing approaches argue that quantitative changes in children’s processing skills largely account for their cognitive development. Instead of focusing on children’s cognitive limitations, developmentalists using an information processing approach focus on the cognitive advances that enable children to develop considerable abilities. Vygotsky believed that children develop cognitively within a context of culture and society. His theory includes the concepts of zone of proximal development and scaffolding. Piaget viewed children as working by themselves to develop an independent view of the world, whereas Vygotsky proposed that children learned the skills of their culture from master teachers. According to the information processing approach of cognitive development, memories of particular events occurring in one’s own life are also known as______________. a. autobiographical memory b. explicit memory c. personal memory d. cultural memory ______________believed that children learn about their world through their interactions with others. a. Vygotsky b. Piaget c. Siegler d. Gelman One reason Vygotsky has only begun to have an nfluence in psychology is because he was largely unknown to developmentalists. • True • False Do you agree with the view that information processing approaches see too many trees and lose sight of the forest? Or do you think that Piaget saw too much forest without accounting for enough trees? Explain. In what ways have educators and others begun to apply Vygotsky’s ideas in schools and communities? Should governments take an active role in this? Growth of Language and Learning Language Development During preschool years: Sentence length increases at a steady pace Syntax doubles each month Enormous leaps in number of words used through fast mapping What is fast mapping? New words are associated with their meaning after only brief encounter. – By age 6, the average child has a vocabulary of around 14,000 words – Vocabulary acquired at rate of nearly one new word every 2 hours, 24 hours a day Preschool Language on the Grow • Use plurals and possessive forms of nouns • Employ the past tense • Use articles • Ask, and answer, complex questions • Extend appropriate formation of words to new words Learning what is not said… Preschoolers also learn what cannot be said as they acquire principles of grammar. • Although they still make frequent mistakes, 3-year-olds: • Follow principles of grammar most of time • Are correct in their grammatical constructions more than 90 percent of time Appropriate Formation of Words • Even though no preschooler—like the rest of us—is likely to have ever before encountered a wug, they are able to produce the appropriate word to fill in the blank (which, for the record, is wugs). Source: WORD, Journal of the International Linguistic Association. Do you ever talk to yourself? I’m not talking to YOU… Private Speech of Children Speech by children that is spoken and directed to themselves – Performs important function – Serves to try out ideas, acting as sounding board – Facilitates children’s thinking and helps them control their behavior – Serves an important social function What about practical communication? Pragmatics is the aspect of language relating to communicating effectively and appropriately with others Helps children to understand the basics of conversations – Turn-taking – Sticking to a topic – What should and should not be said, according to the conventions of society – Use of different language in various settings Social Speech Before the age of 3: – Speak only for their own entertainment – Apparently unaware if anyone else can understand During preschool years: – Begin to direct their speech to others – Want others to listen – Become frustrated when they cannot make themselves understood – Begin to adapt their speech to others through pragmatics Learning from the Media What do children learn from television? What do children learn from the media? Saying No to the Show American Academy of Pediatrics – Recommends that exposure to television should be limited – Suggests that until age of 2, children watch no television, and after that age, no more than 1 to 2 hours of quality programming each day What are the limits of preschoolers’ “television literacy”? Preschool children • Often do not fully understand plots • Unable to recall significant story details • Make limited and often erroneous inferences about motivations • Difficulty separating fantasy from reality • Not able to critically understand and evaluate advertising messages So…would you let your young child watch? Who cares for our children? Taking The Pre Out Of Preschool • Increasing number of children in out-ofhome care • Some benefits to educational activities before formal schooling Cognitive and social development benefit from high quality preschool experiences. Varieties of Early Education • • • • Child care centers Family child care programs Preschools School-age child care How effective are early education programs? Children in Early Education programs Are more verbally fluent, show memory and comprehension advantages, and achieve higher IQ scores than at-home children Are more self-confident, independent, and knowledgeable about social world in which they live than those who do not participate Any downside? Not all outcomes of outside-the-home care are positive Children in child care: – Are found to be less polite, less compliant, less respectful of adults, and sometimes more competitive and aggressive than their peers – Have a slightly higher likelihood of being disruptive in class extending through the sixth grade (when spending 10+ weeks in child care) What makes a good program great? Characteristics of Quality Child Care • Providers are well trained • Appropriate overall size and ratio of care providers to children • Curriculum is carefully planned and coordinated among teachers • Language environment is rich • Caregivers are sensitive to children’s emotional and social needs • Materials and activities are age appropriate • Basic health and safety standards are followed Why does the U.S. lag behind? No coordinated national policy on preschool education – Decisions about education have traditionally been left to states and local school districts – No tradition of teaching preschoolers – Status of preschools in United States is traditionally low In the preschool years, children rapidly increase in linguistic ability, developing an improved sense of grammar and shifting gradually from private to social speech. Preschoolers watch television at high levels with mixes consequences. Preschool educational programs are beneficial if they are of high quality, with trained staff, good curriculum, proper group sizes, and small staff-student ratios. Being able to combine words and phrases in order to form sentences is also known as ______________. a. fast mapping b. grammar c. syntax d. social speech Preschoolers are able to learn the meaning of words after only a brief encounter. This is also known as ______________. a. synaptic explosion b. word unification c. social speech d. fast mapping When it comes to child care and its effectiveness, the key factor is ___________. a. size b. program type (i.e., Montessori) c. age of the child d. quality Is private speech egocentric or useful? Do adults ever use private speech? What functions does it serve? In your view, how do thought and language interact in preschoolers’ development? Is it possible to think without language? How do children who have been deaf from birth think?