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Long Beach 2010 PROCEEDINGS of the NPA 1 Triad Helium Nucleus Russ McGlenn 1448 Sonya Lane, Santa Maria, CA 93455 e-mail: [email protected] This paper contrasts the Spinning Ring Model (Bergman/Lucas) with the Standard Model (Bohr/Einstein) of the Helium Atom. It discusses the dimensions of the electron, a redefinition of the neutron as a triad made up of two protons and one electron, the relationship of both in the nucleus, and the electric and magnetic forces that hold the nucleus together. (From Chapter 6 of Design Vs. Chaos, Russ McGlenn, 2004) 1. Introduction Scientists believe that atoms are made up of smaller and smaller sub atomic particles, and classical physics should be able to explain by cause-and-effect what holds the particles together in a structured way to create matter. Three possibilities have been considered. The first two apply only to the nucleus, while the last one has possibilities for holding electrons in place around the nucleus. 1. Strong nuclear force. This force is assumed to bind protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. It was invented to hold atoms together, but it exists only in nuclei and does not follow the inverse square law of other forces. 2. Weak nuclear force. This is the second force assumed to work in atoms. The weak force is supposed to break particles apart and never hold them together! 3. Electromagnetism. This is a combination of magnetism and electricity. It depends upon the distance and velocity of charged particles. It is a fundamental physical force that is responsible for interactions between charged particles such as electrons and protons. [A common misconception is that Gravity holds the atom together. This is the weakest force in the universe. Gravity cannot hold the electron in place around the nucleus and it cannot hold the proton and neutron together in the nucleus.] 2. Which Force Is the Best Candidate? The following quotation states that, in the Bohr model, electrical charge is not enough to hold the atom together. This quote is a challenge to Newton’s laws of motion, Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory, and the spinning-ring model of the atom. The mass of a nucleus has been observed to be less than the sum of its constituent neutron and proton masses by a small amount that is known as the binding energy. This mass difference is impossible to understand if only the action of electrical forces between nucleons (protons and neutrons) is considered. Such forces, which cause particles of the same charge to repel each other, would drive the protons apart. Some attractive force must also exist to bind the nucleus together. [This is where electromagnetism solves the problem.] The small size of the nucleus compared to that of the entire atom indicates that this attractive force, which is called the strong interaction, must have an extremely short range not larger than the nucleus itself.” (Compton’s Encyclopedia Version 3.00, s.v. “nuclear physics,” emphasis mine) Lucas and Bergman show that, based on Classical Physics, electromagnetic forces will hold the atom together. Everything Lucas and Bergman used to construct their model of the electron and atom has been researched and described in college physics textbooks for nearly 100 years, but was never brought together in one theory to explain the atom. It is a truth that has been hidden by the popularity of Relativity and Quantum Theory. When the charge of the spinning ring moves at the speed of light, the electrical force on the surface of the electron increases the thickness of the ring (based upon Coulomb’s law), while the magnetic force caused by the spinning of the electrical field causes a compression of the ring (based upon Ampère’s law) (Figure 5.9). When the electric and magnetic forces are in perfect balance, a stable, spinning ring is created—forming the basic building block of all matter. If the Coulomb force increases, the atom explodes. If the ampere force increases, the atom collapses. 3. Scientifically Proven Properties of the Electron Table 6.1 lists properties of the electron observed through many laboratory experiments. From these properties, found empirically, Lucas and Bergman built a model of the atom using Faraday’s and Maxwell’s electromagnetic-field theory (which accounts for Newton’s three Laws of Motion). These properties are demonstrated to be the result of electromagnetic forces working in the spinning-ring model of the atom. The proof of a model’s ability to represent the atom is whether accurate predictions can be made from it. The spinning-ring model has “correctly predicted features of the periodic table of elements and the spins of all 1,500 nuclides that have been measured” (Bergman, Physical Models, 1997, p. 3). Table 6.1, though technical, is presented to show that the electron is now a well researched and described, three-dimensional particle. The spinning-ring model takes all the data and builds a visual picture based on known laws of science and mathematical equations. This is a derived model, calculated mathematically and based upon laboratory observations. Every feature of the model is consistent with every other feature. The model is logical, self-consistent, and consistent with experimental measurements of the electron’s properties. The Bohr model and others put forth in the past made up mathematical equations and tried to force the data into the equation instead of the model. This did not work well, and even more complex theories and assumptions had to be made to make the McGlenn: Triad Helium Nucleus SI Units 1.60218x10-19 Coulomb (Ch.deCoulomb) 2 Mass, m 9.10953x10-31 Kilogram 3 Magnetic mom. -9.2848x10-24 Current ampere meter 4 Radius, R 3.86607x10-13 Meter 5 Shape, Ln (R/r ) 429.931 — 6 Rim speed, c Speed of light Meters/second 7 Rotation, ω 8 Current, I 7.75445x1020 -19.773 Amp (Andre M. Ampère) 9 Capacitance, C 3.1281x10-25 Farad (Michael Faraday) 10 Inductance, L 2.0891x10-19 Henry (Joseph Henry) 11 Magnetic flux, Φ -4.1309x10-15 Weber (Wilhelm Weber) 12 Static energy 4.10312x10-14 Joule (James Joule) 13 Magnetic energ 4.08412x10-14 Joule (James Joule) Figure 6.1 S S W Electron to Proton Magnetic Flux Joining Side View As if looking out from the center of the Hydrogen Atom (Figure 6.2) Spinning positive proton viewed on edge. Rad/second This is the point at which the North magnetic flux joins with the South magnetic flux N S SN SN Magnetic flux lines. N S Dimensions Charge, e there. Another simulation is being developed to discover the exact geometries for other atoms and molecules. N S Characteristic 1 Vol. 6, No. 2 N S Bohr model work. We end up with theories to explain why the theories don’t work. Occam’s Razor is a philosophical principle that says the simplest explanation is probably the correct explanation. The spinning-ring model of the atom is much simpler than the Bohr model and fits Occam’s Razor very well. Cross section A-B see Figure 6.2 B 2 Spinning negative electron viewed on edge. Table 6.1—Properties of the Free Electron 4. How the Electron is Held in Place Around the Nucleus N N Magnetic flux lines A Magnetic Flux Lines Top View Hydrogen Molecule Figure 6.2 Magnetic flux lines top view. ro ss s Fi ect gu io re n A 6. -B A 1 se e N proton C S Magnetic flux lines. S N electron electron S N S proton We have already seen that electromagnetism is the best candidate for the binding force within the atom. The charge making up each electron and proton rotates at high speed, creating a corresponding magnetic field. This field, called magnetic flux, is non-moving static energy (called magnetostatic by James Clerk Maxwell). The electron’s magnetic flux either links with or opposes the proton’s flux. North poles couple with south poles— like two bar magnets that pull together when opposites attract— or push apart when similar poles are brought together. (Figures 6.1 and 6.2). Hydrogen provides a simple example of this mechanism (Figure 6.3). The hydrogen molecule is a balanced combination of electric attraction (electron attracted to the proton), electric repulsion (electron repelling electron, proton repelling proton) and magnetic attraction (north poles coupling with south poles), and magnetic repulsion (north against north, south repelling south). This combination of forces determines the allowable stable positions of each electron and proton in any atom, whether within the nucleus or around it. In the spinning-ring model, the dominating force holding particles in their relative positions is the magnetic force. In his model, Joseph Lucas ignores the electric force assuming it does not contribute significantly to the positioning of the particles within the atom. The coupling of magnetic lines of force is what dominates positioning. The Common Sense Science Team developed a computer simulation of the hydrogen molecule and showed that the molecule is stable. All the forces combine to place both electrons and both protons in their positions in the molecule and keep them N B This is the point at which the North flux line joins with the South flux line (See figure 6.1) Magnetic flux lines are continuous without beginning or end. The "N" and "S" labels show the flux line direction relative to its source and should not be confused with electrical fields which are another demension of force in the atom. Long Beach 2010 PROCEEDINGS of the NPA Hydrogen Molecule Figure 6.3 spinning-ring model Positive Negative 3 5. Inside the Nucleus The Bohr model says that the nucleus is comprised of protons and neutrons. When the neutron is knocked out of the atom in a collider chamber, it always breaks up into one proton and one electron. This led the Common Sense Science Team to propose that socalled neutrons are simply one proton and one electron. The spinning-ring model eliminates the neutron as a separate particle in favor of recognizing that the nucleus is composed of groupings of two protons and one electron bound in place by their electromagnetic fields. These groupings are called triads (Figure 6.4). Proton Figure 6.5 Neon Atom Electron 1st Shell Positive Proton 2nd Shell Magnetic Flux Line Magnetic Flux Line Negative Electron Great Circle Figure 6.4 The nucleus is made up of one or more triads of 1 electron and 2 protons. One triad is shown here. The electron is in the center and the two protons are around the outside. Not shown here, but the negative electric charge on the electron is a force of attraction to the positive charge of the protons which compensates for the pushing apart by the magnetic flux. The magnetic flux generates an equally strong force of repulsion. The North magnetic flux of the two protons meet here to push (repel) the protons away. The spinning Electron. The North magnetic flux of the one proton and one electron meet here to push (repel) the nucleus apart. N N Magnetic flux lines. N N N electron proton S N S S S proton S S Top View When the electron and proton's spin velocity is at the speed of light, the triad remains in stable electromagnetic balance to maintain the structure of the nucleus. (not to scale see Figure 5.1) 2 electrons balance out the first shell The nucleus is made up of 10 triads (See 6.6) 6. Which Force Is the Best Candidate? The nucleus of each atom is surrounded by layers of electrons, called shells (Figure 6.5). These shells are held in specific positions around the nucleus by a combination of electrical attraction (toward the protons collected in the nucleus) and magnetic coupling. The number of electrons in each shell varies with the atomic number of the element. The number of shells is largely determined by simple geometric packing, similar to the problem of fitting suitcases in the trunk of your car. The electrons “pack” around the nucleus wherever they will fit in most easily. This is the same concept that is McGlenn: Triad Helium Nucleus 4 involved when we see water flow downhill until it cannot go down anymore and pools in a lake or ocean. There can be up to seven shells in the largest atom (Figure 6.6). After the seventh shell, the binding power of the electromagnetic fields is too weak to hold further shells. Common Sense Science gives a causal explanation for the limit of seven shells, based on Maxwell’s use of Newton’s inverse square law of gravity applied to magnetic force (Bergman, Physical Models, 1997, pp. 14–15). This means that the electromagnetic force of the nucleus can only reach out and hold electrons as far away as the seventh shell. 7. What Holds the Nucleus Inside the First Shell? According to Bergman’s derivations, free protons are more than 1,836 times smaller than free electrons in diameter (Figure 5.1). If the proton were the size of a golf ball, the electron would be the size of a Ferris wheel. The proton has the same quantity of charge as the electron, but it is squeezed into a much smaller volume. This gives the proton a greater charge density, which in turn gives it more mass. Atomic Shells Figure 6.6 The atom can have up to seven shells. The first two shells and nucleus below represent the neon atom. There are 10 electrons in the shells and 10 triads in the nucleus with a possible arrangement of two groups of five one group stacked above the other. Spinning electrons are in a fixed position in the shell and do not orbit the nucleus. (See 6.5 for 3D view) Shells #1 to 7 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Vol. 6, No. 2 remain either at rest or in motion. The higher the magnetic energy, the more the object will resist being moved. Once moving, the more it will resist being stopped. The principle of geometric packing applies to the nucleus also. Electrons in the nucleus are compressed by forces from nearby particles. Electrons are still larger than protons even when this occurs (See Figure 5.1). The smaller size and greater mass of the proton allows it to not only pack closer together, but also creates a stronger magnetic force. This is what binds protons and electrons together to form a nucleus. Depending on the arrangement of electrons and protons in the nucleus, certain forces of attraction and repulsion occur. These magnetic and electrical forces work together to form a stable, though “springy” arrangement. The characteristic of “springiness” is important, as it allows the atom to absorb and store energy. If the atom’s parts were rigidly fixed, it could not do this. In the same way, atoms need to expand or contract to receive or give off energy. As more particles (protons in particular) are added to form heavier and heavier elements, the protons will pack as closely as their field strengths and geometries will permit. Electrons outside of the nucleus are attracted to the protons because of their opposite charge, and pack as closely as possible around the nucleus. Here, around the nucleus, electrons are much bigger and so cannot pack as tightly. Because of lack of room, some electrons remain on the outside and form groupings that we recognize as shells. In order to balance the electric and magnetic forces in the atom, the number of electrons around the outside shells is equal to one-half the number of protons packed in the nucleus. An example of this mechanism is like trying to pack four girls and four boys into a Volkswagen. First we pack four girls (representing positively charged protons) and two boys (representing larger, negatively charged electrons) into the car. The last two boys would not fit inside the car. Because of their attraction to two of the girls inside, they would ride the front and back bumpers outside the car (representing the electrons in the first outer shell). This is an example of how the packing principle works in the helium atom. (Figure 6.8) 8. Atomic Numbers Nucleus enlarged. The actual configuration is still to be determined. Higher charge density yields higher magnetic and electrical field density in the area close to the charge itself. Moving the charged energy around results in higher feedback forces, which we sense physically as being more massive, or harder to move. Remember, mass is not weight, but is the tendency of an object to In the past, the atomic number for any element was defined as the number of protons in the nucleus. This was based on the assumption of the existence of separate particles called neutrons. With the exception of hydrogen which has no nucleus, the spinning-ring model shows that all nuclei are made up of triads containing one electron and two protons each. This gives the new model twice as many protons as was earlier assumed. We have already learned that the total number of electrons in all shells for a given element is equal to the total number of triads in the nucleus (Bergman, pers. com., February 23, 2000). Therefore, the definition of the atomic number under the spinning-ring model is the number of electrons in the outer shells. The Bohr model only recognized half the protons in the nucleus (a number equal to the number of electrons in the outer shells). Thus, the actual atomic number does not change with the new model. Long Beach 2010 PROCEEDINGS of the NPA Elementary atoms range from helium (He) with the atomic number 2 (two shell electrons and two triads in the nucleus) to uranium, with the atomic number 92 (92 shell electrons and 92 5 triads in the nucleus). Some scientists claim to have made heavier atoms, but these man-made atoms only last a few seconds and they are beyond the scope of this book. Periodic Table of the Elements Figure 6.7b The top number is the atomic number. The letter symbol denotes the element. (H = hydrogen) 1 1A 1 1 H 3 Li 13 3A 5 B 14 4A 6 C 6.941 9.01218 10.81 12.011 12 Mg 13 Al 14 Si 15 P 16 S 17 Cl 18 Ar 26.9815 28.086 30.9738 32.06 35.453 39.948 31 Ga 32 Ge 33 As 34 Se 35 Cr 36 K 11 3 Na 19 K 20 Ca 3 3B 21 Sc 39.098 40.08 44.959 47.90 37 5 Rb Sr 38 39 Y 40 Zr PERIOD 22.9898 4 85.4678 55 6 Cs 132.905 7 87 Fr (223) 24.305 87.62 88.9059 56 57 Ba *La 137.33 138.905 4 4B 22 Ti 5 5B 23 V 6 6B 24 Cr 7 7B 25 Mn 50.941 51.996 41 42 Nb Mo 91.22 92.9064 72 Hf 73 Ta 178.49 180.948 95.94 74 W 183.85 8 15 5A 7 N 16 6A 8 O 17 7A 9 F 18 8A 2 He 2 2A 4 Be 1.0079 2 The bottom number is the atomic weight 14.0067 15.9994 18.9984 4.0026 10 Ne 20.179 28 Ni 11 1B 29 Cu 12 2B 30 Zn 58.9332 58.70 63.546 65.38 69.72 72.59 74.9216 78.96 79.904 83.80 45 Rh 46 Pd 47 Ag 48 Cd 49 In 50 Sn 51 Sb 52 Te 53 I 54 Xe 102.905 106.4 107.868 112.40 114.82 118.69 121.75 127.60 78 Pt 79 Au 80 Hg 81 Tl 82 Pb 83 Bi 84 Po 85 At 86 Rn 196.967 200.59 204.37 207.19 208.980 (209) (210) (222) 64 Gd 65 Tb 66 Dy 67 Ho 68 Er 69 Tm 70 Yb 71 Lu 157.25 158.925 162.50 164.930 167.26 168.934 173.04 174.967 10 26 Fe 9 8B 27 Co 54.938 55.847 43 Tc 44 Ru (97) 101.07 75 Re 76 Os 77 Ir 186.207 190.2 192.22 195.09 126.904 131.30 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 Ra †Ac Ru Ha Unh Uns Uno Une 226.025 227.028 (261) (262) *Lanthanide series: †Actinide series: (263) (262) (265) (266) 58 Ce 59 Pr 60 61 62 63 Nd Pm Sm Eu 140.12 140.908 144.24 (145) 90 Th 91 Pa 92 U 93 Np 232.038 231.036 238.029 234.048 150.36 151.965 94 95 96 97 Pu Am Cm Bk 98 Cf 99 100 101 102 103 Es Fm Md No Lr (244) (251) (252) (243) (247) (247) (257) (258) (259) (260) 6 McGlenn: Triad Helium Nucleus 9. The Periodic Table In the early 1800s, scientists began to see that some elements had similar characteristics which formed groups based on their chemical properties. About 1870, scientists in Germany and Russia discovered that similarities tended to be greatest between elements whose atomic numbers were close together. This tendency is called the Periodic Law, and its discovery led to the development of the Periodic Table (Figure 6.7b). The Periodic Table lists all the known elements grouped according to their atomic numbers and chemical properties. The Periodic Table was derived primarily by experimental observations and measurements. It represents a descriptive layout for convenience, primarily with respect to chemical reactions. At this time the spinning-ring model of the atom does not change the Periodic Table. What the spinning-ring model does is give a cause-and-effect explanation for the arrangement of the periodic table. The revised Periodic Table shows the relationship of the seven possible shells for the elements in Figure 6.7. (Bergman, Physical Models, 1998, p. 15). 10. Magic Numbers The number of electrons that can fit into a closed shell is shown in Figure 6.7. “Magic numbers” are the sum of electrons of complete shell sizes and the atomic magic numbers are 2, 10, 18, 36, 54, 86, and 118. Note that “magic numbers” are different from shell sizes. Quantum theorists know the “magic numbers” exist, but have no explanation for them. The Common Sense scientists have provided a logical, classical-physics answer for why there is this arrangement of numbers, based on the geometrical packing mechanism described earlier. Even the term “magic number” is based on the incorrect Bohr model and the random-chance factor of the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. There is a logical reason for these numbers and I propose that these numbers be called “design numbers” to show there is a cause for their existence. 11. Why Hydrogen is Unique Each element consists of a specific number of atomic particles—normally protons or electrons in the nucleus and electrons in outer atomic shells. Bohr-model theorists believe that the hydrogen atom is made of one electron and one proton—but such an atom does not exist in nature. Hydrogen molecules, which are found in nature, each have two electrons and two protons. And not one of these particles is in the center of the molecule. Hydrogen is the only element that has no nucleus. Hydrogen only exists in structures made of two protons and two electrons, which they believe is a group of two hydrogen atoms. However, when these two atoms are separated, they immediately ionize (lose their electrons). This is because the combination of one electron and one proton does not have the proper magnetic force to create a stable structure, and is why so-called single hydrogen “atoms” cannot exist alone in nature. This is also the reason why a nucleus, made of one electron and two protons must be a triad. The minimum stable atomic structure is two protons and two electrons—in other words, a Vol. 6, No. 2 hydrogen molecule. This combination creates the magnetic fields necessary to hold the hydrogen molecule together. 12. A Need for Further Research Helium, the next stable structure in the periodic table, consists of eight particles that are tightly and compactly bound together because helium is a noble gas that is chemically inert. Both of these terms mean that the element is extremely stable and does not readily deteriorate or combine with other elements. See Figures 6.8 and 6.9 for a contrast between the two models of the helium atom. Helium Figure 6.8 Spinning Ring Model Assumption: Spinning-Ring Model - There are only two basic particles in an atom: electrons and protons. The forces holding the atom together are the result of the interaction of electrical and magnetic forces. This diagram deals only with the magnetic force. The configuration of the Helium atom is shown tentatively below. The actual configuration is the subject of continuing research by the Common Sense Science team. The Bohr Model shows Helium made up of 2 protons and 2 neutrons in the nucleus with 2 electrons in the first shell. However, when neutrons are knocked out of the nucleus they separate into 1 electron and 1 proton. In the Spinning-Ring Model, we combine these two particles with the original proton and redefine the nucleus this way: The nucleus of the helium atom is composed of 2 triads. Triads are composed of 2 protons and 1 electron bound by electromagnetism. (See figure 6.4) 1 Triad Side View Proton Electron Electron Solid lines represent repulsive magnetic flux lines. Proton In this top view, these are the same lines of flux. (See figure 6.4) As you ascend the periodic chart numerically, adding particle count, the geometries begin to develop patterns defined by the size of the particles and the possibilities for balanced electrical and magnetic repulsion and attraction. These patterns are exhibited by the formation of nuclei. The nuclei are made of triads, and the triads are made of two protons and one electron. Surrounding the nuclei are “shells” of electrons coupled together magnetically and held close to the nucleus by the electrical attraction of the protons. 13. To Be Continued Developing a basic understanding of the electron and using it to “assemble” a model of the atom is in the early stages of research. Some of the material presented in this paper may be revised as research continues. As the work progresses, it is an exciting and open field of discovery and adventure for physics majors who would like to get involved. Long Beach 2010 PROCEEDINGS of the NPA In the process of development of the spinning-ring model, hypotheses must be advanced and then falsified by the research data. This takes much time, energy, and of course, money. One goal of this book is to get the information to students who will see the need for this new atomic model and turn their careers toward physics. [9] 7 David L. Bergman, “Inertial Mass of Charged Elementary Particles.” Roswell, Georgia: Common Sense Science. 1998. [ 10 ] David L. Bergman, “Is There Truth in Science?” Foundations of Science, vol. 1, no. 1, July 1998. [ 11 ] David L. Bergman, “Models of the Electron.” Foundations of Science, vol. 2, no. 4, November 1999. [ 12 ] David L. Bergman, “Validity of Common Sense Science” Founda- Helium Figure 6.9 Bohr Model with recent additions. Contrast this with the Spinning Ring Model. website, http://CommonSenseScience.org [ 14 ] David L. Bergman & Charles W. Lucas, Jr., Physical Models of Matter. Roswell, Georgia: Common Sense Science, 1997. Nucleus Proton Electron P N P N [ 15 ] Winston H. Bostick, "Experimental Study of Ionized Matter ProNeutron jected across a Magnetic Field", Physical Review, V104, N2, pp. 292299 (Oct 1956). [ 16 ] Winston H. Bostick, "Pair Production of Plasma Vortices", Physics of Fluids, V9, N10, pp. 2078-2080 (Oct 1966). [ 17 ] Winston H. Bostick, "Morphology of the Electron, Photon, and Neutron: The Plasmoid Construction of the Superstring", Physics Proton Glu on Gluon Essays, V3, N4 (Win 1990). 2 up Q. [ 18 ] Winston H. Bostick, "Mass, Charge, and Current: The Essence and Morphology", Physics Essays, V4, N1, pp. 45-59 (Spr 1991). 1 down Q. [ 19 ] Arthur H. Compton, "The Size and Shape of the Electron - American Physical Society address (Dec 1917)", Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, pp. 330 (Jan 1918). Electron [ 20 ] Arthur H. Compton, "The Size and Shape of the Electron: I. TheSNeutron n so Bo Gl uo n on lu Boson cattering of High Frequency Radiation", Physical Review, S2, V14, N1, pp. 20-43 (Jul 1919). [ 21 ] Arthur H. Compton, "The Size and Shape of the Electron: II. The G P Gluon Absorption of High Frequency Radiation", Physical Review, S2, V14, N3, pp. 247-259 (Sep 1919). [ 22 ] Arthur H. Compton, "Possible Magnetic Polarity of Free Electrons", Bo so n on lu G The Bohr Model has evolved into the Standard Model. In this model, the Helium atom is made up of the following sub-atomic particles, (parts smaller than the atom): 1. Two electrons orbiting in the first shell. The electron is called a point particle and has no length, width, or height 2. The nucleus is composed of two protons and two neutrons. There is no cause and effect description of why they remain in a stable configuration. The Strong Nuclear Force was invented to hold the nucleus together. 3. The proton and neutron are composed of sub sub atomic particles called quarks. A. There are two up quarks and B. One down quark. C. These particles are bound together by the gluon once called the Strong Nuclear Force. (Sub,sub,sub atomic) The gluon travels back and forth between the quarks in a proton and neutron to hold them together. 4. The Weak Nuclear Force is a particle called a boson. (Sub,sub,sub atomic and designated W+, W-, Zo) The boson is ten million times weaker than the strong nuclear force. It is responsible for making a proton, electron, and neutrino when a neutron decays. (or is spilt apart) This force works over a distance one hundredth of the diameter of a proton. (The World of Atoms and Quarks, Scientific American Source Books, Albert Stwertka, 1995, p.58, 60, 74 -76) Foundations of Science, vol. 6, no. 2, May 2003. [ 13 ] David L. Bergman et al. Internet papers, Common Sense Science Assumed Sub-Atomic Particles of the Standard Model of Elementary Particles Assumption: Standard Model - The particles and forces of the atom are composed of infinitely decreasing sized sub-atomic particles and number more than 500. tions of Science, vol. 2, no. 2, May 1999; “Elementary Particles” up Quark Neutrino down Quark Philosophical Magazine, S6, V41 (Feb 1921). [ 23 ] Arthur H. Compton, "The Magnetic Electron", Journal of the Franklin Institute, V192, N2, pp. 145-155 (Aug 1921). [ 24 ] Lars O. Grondahl, "Proceedings of the American Physical Society: Selected Bibliography Experimental Evidence for the Parson Magneton", Physical Review, S2, V10, N5, pp. 586-588 (Nov 1917). [1] H. Stanley Allen, "The Case for a Ring Electron", Proceedings of the [ 25 ] Charles W. Lucas, Jr., “Overview of Electrodynamics Approach to God’s Creation and Daily Sustaining of the Universe”, Proceedings [2] Physical Society of London, V31, N1, pp. 49-68 (Dec 1918). H. Stanley Allen, "Optical Rotation, Optical Isomerism, and the Ring Electron", Philosophical Magazine, S6, V40, N6, p. 426 (1920). [3] [4] H. Stanley Allen, "The Angular Momentum and Some Related Properties of the Ring Electron", Philosophical Magazine, S6, V41, N6, Particles vs. Maxwell’s Equations, Relativity Theory and Quantum p. 113 (1921). Mechanics”, Proceedings of the 1992 Twin-Cities Creation Confe- Thomas G. Barnes, Origin and Destiny of the Earth’s Magnetic Thomas G. Barnes, Physics of the Future, El Cajon, California: Institute for Creation Research, 1983. [6] Thomas G. Barnes, Space Medium: The Key to Unified Physics. 1986. [7] David L. Bergman, “Atoms and Void.” Foundations of Science, Vol. 2, No. 1. February 1999. [8] Minneapolis, Minnesota. 1992. [ 26 ] Charles W. Lucas, Jr. & Joseph C. Lucas, “Electrodynamics of Real Field, El Cajon, Calif.: Institute for Creation Research, 1973. [5] of the 1992 Twin-Cities Creation Conference. Published by TCCSA, David L. Bergman, “Conflict of Atomism and Creationism in History”. Proceedings of The Fourth International Conference on Creationism, Creation Science Fellowship, Inc., Pittsburgh, pp. 53-65, 1998. rence. Published by TCCSA, Minneapolis, Minnesota. 1992. [ 27 ] Alfred L.Parson, “A Magneton Theory of the Structure of the Atom.” Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collection, vol. 65, no. 11, Publication No. 2371 (Nov. 29, 1915): 1–80. [ 28 ] David L. Webster, "The Theory of Electromagnetic Mass of the Parson Magneton and other Non-Spherical Systems", Physical Review, S2, V9, N6, pp. 484-499 (Jun 1917). [ 29 ] David L. Webster, "The Scattering of Alpha Rays as Evidence on the Parson Magnetron Hypothesis", Physical Review, S2 (Feb 1918).