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MGMT 371: Individual Differences: SelfConcept and Personality and Social Perceptions Self-concepts Self-Management Personality Social Perceptions Variables Influencing Individual Behavior An OB Model for Studying Individual Differences The Unique Individual Personality traits Forms of SelfExpression Self-Management Attitudes Self Concept • Self-esteem • Self-efficacy • Self-monitoring McGraw-Hill Abilities Emotions © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Propositions of Interactional Psychology Behavior is a function of continuous, multidirectional interaction between the person and the situation. The person is active in this process and both changes situation and is changed by them. People vary in many characteristics, including cognitive, affective, motivational and ability factors. Two aspects of a situation are important: the objective situation and the person’s subjective view of the situation. Self-Concepts Self-esteem Self-efficacy Self-monitoring Affect Self-Management Locus of Control Self-Esteem Failure tends to decrease self-esteem Success tends to increase self-esteem Self-Efficacy Beliefs Pave the Way for Success or Failure Sources of SelfEfficacy Beliefs Feedback Results High Prior experience “I know I can do this job Behavior models Self-efficacy Low McGraw-Hill Success Beliefs Persuasion From Others Assessment Of Physical Emotional State Behavior Patterns “I don’t think I can get the job done.” Behavior Patterns Failure Self-Monitoring Behavior and cues High self monitors flexible: adjust behavior according to the situation and the behavior of others can appear unpredictable and inconsistent Low self monitors act from internal states rather than from situational cues show consistency less likely to respond to work group norms or supervisory feedback The Role of Affect Positive Affect – an individual’s tendency to accentuate the positive aspects of oneself, other people, and the world in general Negative Affect – an individual’s tendency to accentuate the negative aspects of oneself, other people, and the world in general Self-Management Social Learning Model Situational cues Cognitive supports Self-talk Self-reinforcement A Social Learning Model of Self-Management Person (Psychological self) Behavior Situational cues McGraw-Hill Consequences © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Locus of Control Internal I control what happens to me! External People and circumstances control my fate! Personality The relatively stable set of characteristics that influences an individual’s behavior and lend it consistency. Personality Stable personal identity The Big Five Proactivity Locus of Control Ideal Personality? Personality Theories Trait Theory – understand individuals by breaking down behavior patterns into observable traits Psychodynamic Theory – emphasizes the unconscious determinants of behavior Humanistic Theory – emphasizes individual growth and improvement Integrative Approach – describes personality as a composite of an individual’s psychological processes © 2011 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Big Five Personality Traits Personality Characteristics in Organizations A strong situation can overwhelm the effects of individual personalities by providing strong cues for appropriate behavior Personality Characteristics in Organizations Strong personalities will dominate in a weak situation Myers-Briggs Type Indicator In the 1940’s, Myers and Briggs developed the MBTI to understand individual differences by analyzing the combinations of preferences. Cognitive Abilities Intelligence: Capacity for constructive thinking, reasoning, problem solving Seven Major Mental Abilities General and specific Seven Major Mental Abilities Ability Description Verbal comprehension Understanding what words mean and readily comprehending what is read Word fluency Ability to produce isolated words that fulfill symbolic or structural requirements Numerical Ability to make quick and accurate arithmetic computations such as adding and subtracting Spatial Able to perceive spatial patterns and to visualize how geometric shapes would look if transformed in shape and position McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Seven Major Mental Abilities (Cont.) Ability Description Memory Having good memory for paired words, symbols, lists of numbers, or other associated items Ability to perceive figures, Perceptual speed Inductive reasoning McGraw-Hill identify similarities and differences, and carry out tasks involving visual perception Ability to reason from specifics to general conclusions © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Social Information Processing Model Of Perception Stage 1: Selective Attention/Comprehension - Attention is the process of becoming aware of something or someone - People pay attention to salient stimuli Stage 2: Encoding and Simplification - Encoding = interpreting environmental stimuli by using info in cognitive schemata -Each individual encodes uniquely McGraw-Hill McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. STEREOTYPES Traditional Stereotypes: Sex roles, Age, Race, Disability, etc. Managerial Implications Why do we stereotype? Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Social Information Processing Model of Perception (Cont.) Stage 3: Storage and Retention - Encoded info stimuli is sent to long-term memory - Long-term memory: three compartments of info about events, semantic materials, and people Stage 4: Retrieval and Response - Information is retrieved from memory to make judgments and decisions McGraw-Hill McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©©2006 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Commonly Found Perceptual Errors Perceptual Error Description Halo A rater forms an overall impression about an object and then uses the impression to bias ratings about the object. Leniency A personal characteristic that leads an individual to consistently evaluate other people or objects in an extremely positive fashion. Central Tendency The tendency to avoid all extreme judgments and rate people and objects as average or neutral. McGraw-Hill McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Commonly Found Perceptual Errors (Cont.) Perceptual Error Description Recency Effects The tendency to remember recent information. If the recent information is negative, the person or object is evaluated negatively. Contrast Effects The tendency to evaluate people or objects by comparing them with characteristics of recently observed people or objects. McGraw-Hill McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Positive and Negative Emotions Negative emotions (Goal incongruent): - Anger - Guilt/shame - Envy/jealousy - Fright/anxiety - Sadness - Disgust Positive emotions (Goal congruent) - Happiness/joy - Love/affection McGraw-Hill - Pride - Relief © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. PERCEPTION IS REALITY! Info Processing Model 1. 2. 3. 4. Selective Attention/Comprehension Encoding & Simplification Storage & Retention Retrieval & Response Perceiver Characteristics • Familiarity with target • Attitudes/Mood • Self-concept • Cognitive structure Target Characteristics • Physical appearance • Verbal communication • Nonverbal cues • Intentions Barriers Social • Selective perception Perception • Stereotyping • First-impression error • Projection • Self-fulfilling prophecies Social Perception Model Situational Characteristics • Interaction context • Strength of situational cues Barriers to Social Perception Impression Management Stereotype First Impression Error Projection Self-fulfilling prophecy Impression Management The process by which individuals try to control the impression others have of them Name dropping Appearance Self-description Flattery Favors Agreement with opinion ATTRIBUTIONS: Inferring Cause and Effect 1. Kelly’s Model 3 dimensions of behavior assessed 1. Consensus 2. Distinctiveness 3. Consistency Internal Attributions External Attributions Consensus Low A B C D People High E A B C D People E Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p 56. Used with permission. © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill McGraw-Hill/Irwin Distinctiveness High Low A B C Tasks D E A B C Tasks D E Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p 56. Used with permission. © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill McGraw-Hill/Irwin Consistency Low High Time Time Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p 56. Used with permission. © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill McGraw-Hill/Irwin ATTRIBUTIONS: Inferring Cause and Effect 2. Weiner’s Model (Process) Individual performs a task He/she judges it successful or non Causal analysis (Internal vs. External) Influence on self-esteem, future performance ATTRIBUTIONS: Inferring Cause and Effect Fundamental Self-Serving Managerial Attribution Bias Bias Implications