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MGMT 371:
Individual Differences: SelfConcept and Personality and
Social Perceptions
Self-concepts
 Self-Management
 Personality
 Social Perceptions

Variables Influencing Individual Behavior
An OB Model for Studying
Individual Differences
The Unique Individual
Personality
traits
Forms of SelfExpression
Self-Management
Attitudes
Self Concept
• Self-esteem
• Self-efficacy
• Self-monitoring
McGraw-Hill
Abilities
Emotions
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Propositions of Interactional
Psychology
Behavior is a function of continuous, multidirectional
interaction between the person and the situation.
The person is active in this process and both changes
situation and is changed by them.
People vary in many characteristics, including cognitive,
affective, motivational and ability factors.
Two aspects of a situation are important: the objective
situation and the person’s subjective view of the situation.
Self-Concepts
 Self-esteem
 Self-efficacy
 Self-monitoring
 Affect
 Self-Management
 Locus of Control
Self-Esteem
Failure tends
to decrease
self-esteem
Success tends
to increase
self-esteem
Self-Efficacy Beliefs Pave the Way
for Success or Failure
Sources of SelfEfficacy Beliefs
Feedback
Results
High
Prior
experience
“I know I can do
this job
Behavior
models
Self-efficacy
Low
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Success
Beliefs
Persuasion
From
Others
Assessment
Of Physical
Emotional
State
Behavior
Patterns
“I don’t think I
can get the job
done.”
Behavior
Patterns
Failure
Self-Monitoring
Behavior and cues
High self monitors


flexible: adjust
behavior according to
the situation and the
behavior of others
can appear
unpredictable and
inconsistent
Low self monitors



act from internal
states rather than
from situational cues
show consistency
less likely to respond
to work group norms
or supervisory
feedback
The Role of Affect
Positive Affect – an individual’s
tendency to accentuate the positive
aspects of oneself, other people, and
the world in general
Negative Affect – an individual’s
tendency to accentuate the negative
aspects of oneself, other people, and
the world in general
Self-Management
Social Learning Model
 Situational cues
 Cognitive supports
 Self-talk
 Self-reinforcement

A Social Learning Model of
Self-Management
Person
(Psychological self)
Behavior
Situational cues
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Consequences
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Locus of Control
Internal
I control what
happens to me!
External
People and
circumstances
control my fate!
Personality
The relatively stable set of
characteristics that influences an
individual’s behavior and lend it
consistency.
Personality





Stable personal identity
The Big Five
Proactivity
Locus of Control
Ideal Personality?
Personality Theories
Trait Theory – understand individuals by
breaking down behavior patterns into
observable traits
Psychodynamic Theory – emphasizes the
unconscious determinants of behavior
Humanistic Theory – emphasizes individual
growth and improvement
Integrative Approach – describes
personality as a composite of an individual’s
psychological processes
© 2011 Cengage Learning. All rights
reserved.
Big Five Personality Traits
Personality Characteristics
in Organizations
A strong
situation can
overwhelm the effects
of individual personalities
by providing strong cues
for appropriate behavior
Personality Characteristics
in Organizations
Strong
personalities
will dominate
in a weak
situation
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
In the 1940’s, Myers and Briggs
developed the MBTI to understand
individual differences by analyzing
the combinations of preferences.
Cognitive Abilities



Intelligence: Capacity for constructive
thinking, reasoning, problem solving
Seven Major Mental Abilities
General and specific
Seven Major Mental Abilities
Ability
Description
Verbal comprehension
Understanding what words
mean and readily
comprehending what is read
Word fluency
Ability to produce isolated
words that fulfill symbolic or
structural requirements
Numerical
Ability to make quick and
accurate arithmetic
computations such as adding
and subtracting
Spatial
Able to perceive spatial patterns
and to visualize how geometric
shapes would look if transformed
in shape and position
McGraw-Hill
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Seven Major Mental Abilities (Cont.)
Ability
Description
Memory
Having good memory for paired
words, symbols, lists of
numbers, or other associated
items
Ability to perceive figures,
Perceptual speed
Inductive reasoning
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identify similarities and
differences, and carry out tasks
involving visual perception
Ability to reason from specifics
to general conclusions
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Social Information Processing Model
Of Perception
Stage 1: Selective Attention/Comprehension
- Attention is the process of becoming aware
of something or someone
- People pay attention to salient stimuli
Stage 2: Encoding and Simplification
- Encoding = interpreting environmental
stimuli by using info in cognitive schemata
-Each individual encodes uniquely
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© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
STEREOTYPES
Traditional Stereotypes:


Sex roles, Age, Race, Disability, etc.
Managerial Implications
Why do we stereotype?
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Social Information Processing Model
of Perception (Cont.)
Stage 3: Storage and Retention
- Encoded info stimuli is sent to long-term
memory
- Long-term memory: three compartments
of info about events, semantic
materials, and
people
Stage 4: Retrieval and Response
- Information is retrieved from memory to
make judgments and decisions
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2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Commonly Found Perceptual Errors
Perceptual Error
Description
Halo
A rater forms an overall
impression about an object and
then uses the impression to bias
ratings about the object.
Leniency
A personal characteristic that
leads an individual to
consistently evaluate other
people or objects in an extremely
positive fashion.
Central Tendency
The tendency to avoid all extreme
judgments and rate people and
objects as average or neutral.
McGraw-Hill
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© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Commonly Found
Perceptual Errors (Cont.)
Perceptual Error
Description
Recency Effects
The tendency to remember recent
information. If the recent
information is negative, the
person or object is evaluated
negatively.
Contrast Effects
The tendency to evaluate people
or objects by comparing them
with characteristics of recently
observed people or objects.
McGraw-Hill
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© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Positive and Negative Emotions
Negative emotions (Goal
incongruent):
- Anger
- Guilt/shame
- Envy/jealousy
- Fright/anxiety
- Sadness
- Disgust
Positive emotions (Goal
congruent)
- Happiness/joy
- Love/affection
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- Pride
- Relief
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
PERCEPTION IS REALITY!
Info Processing Model
1.
2.
3.
4.
Selective Attention/Comprehension
Encoding & Simplification
Storage & Retention
Retrieval & Response
Perceiver Characteristics
• Familiarity with target
• Attitudes/Mood
• Self-concept
• Cognitive structure
Target Characteristics
• Physical appearance
• Verbal communication
• Nonverbal cues
• Intentions
Barriers
Social
• Selective perception
Perception
• Stereotyping
• First-impression error
• Projection
• Self-fulfilling prophecies
Social
Perception
Model
Situational Characteristics
• Interaction context
• Strength of situational cues
Barriers to Social Perception
Impression Management
Stereotype
First Impression Error
Projection
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Impression Management
The process by which individuals try
to control the impression others have
of them






Name dropping
Appearance
Self-description
Flattery
Favors
Agreement with opinion
ATTRIBUTIONS: Inferring
Cause and Effect
1. Kelly’s Model

3 dimensions of behavior assessed
1. Consensus
2. Distinctiveness
3. Consistency


Internal Attributions
External Attributions
Consensus
Low
A
B C D
People
High
E
A
B C D
People
E
Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984,
p 56. Used with permission.
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Distinctiveness
High
Low
A
B C
Tasks
D
E
A
B C
Tasks
D
E
Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984,
p 56. Used with permission.
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
McGraw-Hill
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Consistency
Low
High
Time
Time
Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984,
p 56. Used with permission.
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
McGraw-Hill
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
ATTRIBUTIONS: Inferring
Cause and Effect
2. Weiner’s Model (Process)
 Individual
performs a task
 He/she judges it successful or non
 Causal analysis (Internal vs. External)
 Influence on self-esteem, future
performance
ATTRIBUTIONS: Inferring
Cause and Effect
 Fundamental
 Self-Serving
 Managerial
Attribution Bias
Bias
Implications