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Grammar: Parts of Speech Grammar: A way of thinking about language. Noun: The name of a person, place, thing, or idea. Proper nouns: capitalized (specific names) Joe Folsom Super Bowl Judaism Common nouns: not capitalized (nonspecific) person park car meal Concrete nouns: names of objects (sensory) Are either Proper or Common: Six Flags garlic fries Abstract nouns: names of ideas: greed hope jealousy love Collective nouns: names of groups of things United States Vista Eagles team crowd Singular nouns: names of individual things(one) actor Canadian bully person Plural nouns: names of plural things (>one) actors Canadians bullies people Pronoun: A word that takes the place of a noun. Pronouns make language fast. Pronouns can be masculine (he, him, his) Pronouns can be feminine (she, her, hers) Subject pronouns First person: Second person: Third person: Singular I you he, she, it Plural we you they The pronoun’s antecedent is the noun the pronoun replaces. Pronouns are not specific! This causes problems when the pronoun could refer to several different antecedents. Example: The boy and his friend walked home and soon he stopped to tie his shoe. Object pronouns 1st person: 2nd person: 3rd person: Singular me you him, her, it Plural us you them Possessive pronouns A pronoun that is used to show possession Used as both a pronoun and an adjective Does not need apostrophes Possessive pronouns: my, your, his, her, its, our, theirs it’s is a contraction of it is, not a pronoun Interrogative pronouns Used in a question who, whose, whom, which, that Demonstrative pronouns Used to demonstrate this, that, these, those Relative pronouns Relates an adjective clause to a main clause who, whose, whom, which, that STOP Reflexive pronouns Ends in –self or –selves and reflects back to a word used previously in the sentence himself, herself, myself, themselves Indefinite pronouns General pronouns that do not have definite antecedents anyone, anybody, each, all, someone Intensive pronouns Is a –self or –selves pronoun used to intensify the emphasis on a noun or another pronoun I, myself, agree with that idea. Pronoun/antecedent agreement A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number. If the noun is singular, the pronoun must be singular too. Alexander brought the column to a halt; he summoned his mapmaker. The soldiers found Archimedes; they did not recognize the crazy old man. If Hemingway or Fitzgerald is here, let him in. If Hemingway and Fitzgerald are here, let them in. Subject-Object Pronoun Errors in Sentences Subject=Before verb Object=After verb Me went to school with he. He went to school with I. I went to school with him. Common The missing antecedent No antecedent noun to which the pronoun refers He was born in 1895? (he who?) The ambiguous reference pronoun reference errors: Two or more nouns to which the pronoun might refer The boy and his friend stopped to tie his shoe. The ghost demonstration error Misusing the pronoun this and confusing the reader This soon resulted in. . .(this what?) The solution: Replace the pronoun with a noun. Some additional pronouns: It is advisable to think first. Each person had her own method. ADJECTIVE: A word that modifies a Noun or Pronoun. Modify means to change. Adjectives help us to describe nouns and pronouns more completely. A noun can do without an adjective, but an adjective cannot exist without a noun or pronoun. There are three degrees of adjectives Positive Comparative Superlative good Positive easy better Comparative easier best Superlative easiest Proper adjectives are made out of proper nouns. England makes English Rome makes Roman English and Spanish are capitalized because they come from proper nouns (as opposed to history and math) Articles a, an, the Articles are also considered adjectives There are two kinds of Articles: Definite article: the Indefinite articles: a & an Spanish has masculine and feminine articles, English does not. Verb: A word that shows actions, being, or links a subject to a subject compliment The verb is saying that the noun did something or that the noun is something. Action Might show simple action verbs Verdi composed. Might show action on a direct object Verdi composed the opera. Linking Linking verbs: verbs: am, is, are, was, were, being, been Might link the subject to a subject complement. He is a poet. (Poet is the subject complement) He was going to study all night. (going to study is the subject complement) Four Infinitive going, doing, thinking, dreaming Past to go, to do, to think, to dream Present participle principle parts of the verb: went, did, thought, dreamed Past participle gone, done, thought, dreamed Regular verbs: Most verbs make the four principle parts in the same regular way. Infinitive present part past past part To work working worked worked To spill spilling spilled spilled Irregular verbs: Those verbs that are unique and have no pattern. To shrink, shrinking, shrank, shrunk To ring, ringing, rang, rung To break, breaking, broke, broken Auxiliary or helping verbs In a compound tense, the main verb is supplemented by an auxiliary or helping verb. I will have composed a symphony. (the main verb is composed and the auxiliary verbs are will have) Transitive verb Is an action verb that acts on a direct object. The harpoon hit Moby Dick. Intransitive verb Is an action verb that does not act on a direct object. Harpoons flew. Active Voice Is an action verb that shows the subject acting. Johnson discussed the problem. Passive Voice Is an action verb that shows the subject passively being acted upon. The problem was discussed. Passive voice is used often in scientific writing. Not: First I administered the placebos. But: The placebos were administered. Active Voice: The meteor struck the ship. Passive The ship was struck by the meteor. Active Voice: The Literary Society presented Dickens the award. Passive Voice: Voice: Dickens was presented with an award. Verbs also indicate time. There are six verb tenses. Present Past Future Present perfect Past perfect Future perfect They are called perfect tense because it is the tense of things that are finished: in the past in the present in the future Present progressive: Indicates an action still in progress. Present progressive: I am protesting. Past progressives: I was protesting. Future progressive: I shall be protesting. Present perfect progressive: I have been protesting. Past perfect progressive: I had been protesting. Future perfect progressive: I shall have been protesting. Verbs have moods. Indicative Ordinary mood I am going. Imperative Command mood Go! Subjunctive (used with the verb were) IF mood If I was going. . . (Spanish and the soft subjunctive.) Parallel verb tense—sticking to the tense you are using. Not parallel When Charles Dickens went to America, he gives many speeches and feels that his trip was successful. Parallel When Charles Dickens went to America, he gave many speeches and felt that his trip was successful. Only action verbs are transitive or intransitive, active or passive voice. Linking verbs (To be) are not. Adverb: A word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Don’t “During the first half of the twentieth century the world greatly changed.” “During the first half of the twentieth century, the world changed.” Try overuse adverbs. to avoid the use of “very” He was very, very hungry. He was hungry. Adverbs often show when, where, under what condition and how. When? Always, earlier, frequently, late, never, now, often, seldom, tomorrow, usually, yesterday Where? Down, everywhere, here, in, North, nowhere, out, somewhere, South, there, up, upstairs Under Also, certainly, maybe, not, perhaps, possibly, out We are going to the movies and maybe I’ll buy your ticket. How? what condition? (most of these end in –ly) Carefully, commonly, easily, fast, noisily, quickly, slowly, well Prepositions: (60+) A word that shows the relationship between its object and another word in the sentence. Prepositions show where two things are located, in relationship to each other. Prepositions show relationships of Time—before, during, after Kim divorced cousin Kris before marrying Kanye. Space/Place—in, on, around, over, under, of Gaga went ga-ga with the meat dress around her Direction—to, from, toward Miley went from Hannah Montana to Psycho Cyrus. Purpose: for Transferring memory can be good for you. Most of the time, you shouldn’t end a sentence with a preposition. It happens more often now. “Who is this present for?” “For whom is this present?” Concatenated (chained) prepositional phrases—one of the most common patterns in grammar. This is a chain of prepositional phrases: Her eyes were of the blue of the sky in the fall in San Juan. Conjunctions: A word that joins two words or two groups of words. Coordinating conjunctions joins equals. Memorize these conjunctions (Write down): and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet if, as, since, when, because However, furthermore, moreover, nevertheless, accordingly, and therefore You and I went to the movies. You can’t pass, but you can fail. She was right, however, her judgment was flawed. Subordinating conjunctions subordinate. They join something of lesser importance to something of greater importance. Here are some subordinating conjunctions: if, as, since, when, because Correlative conjunctions are multiple-word conjunctions Either/or and neither/nor Conjunctive adverbs are conjunctions that act as both adverbs and conjunctions However, furthermore, moreover, nevertheless, accordingly, and therefore Interjections: A word that shows emotion but has no grammatical function. The interjection stands alone unlike all the other parts of speech. Interjections are the words that fill action comic books. Oh, ugh, oof, wow, yes, no, oops, Bam, Boom. Interjections are often (not always) punctuated with an exclamation point. Boom! Pow! Wham! Whee! Ow! The core of every idea is a noun/pronoun and a verb. All other parts of speech provide elaborations and variations. Parts of speech, simplified: Nouns name things Pronouns make language fast Verbs make events and equations Adjective and adverbs adjust nouns and verbs Prepositions show relationships of physics and 3Dness Conjunctions combine Interjections emote