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Transcript
Frederick A. Bettelheim William H. Brown Mary K. Campbell Shawn O. Farrell www.cengage.com/chemistry/bettelheim Chapter 29 Biosynthetic Pathways William H. Brown • Beloit College Introduction In most living organisms, the pathways by which a compound is synthesized are usually different from the pathways by which it is degraded; two reasons are 1. flexibility: If a normal biosynthetic pathway is blocked, the organism can often use the reverse of the degradation pathway for synthesis. 2. overcoming Le Châtelier’s principle: • We can illustrate by this reaction: (Glucose)n + Pi Glycogen phosphorylase (Glucos e)n-1 + Glucose 1-phosphate Glycogen (one unit smaller) 29-2 Introduction • Phosphorylase catalyzes both the forward and reverse reactions. • A large excess of phosphate would drive the reaction to the right; that is, drive the hydrolysis of glycogen. • To provide an alternative pathway for the synthesis of glycogen, even in the presence of excess phosphate: (Glucose)n-1 + UDP-glucose (Glucos e)n + UDP Glycogen (one unit larger) Most synthetic pathways are different from the degradation pathways. Most also differ in location and in energy requirements. 29-3 Carbohydrate Biosynthesis We discuss the biosynthesis of carbohydrates under three headings. • Conversion of CO2 to glucose in plants. • Synthesis of glucose in animals and humans. • Conversion of glucose to other carbohydrates. Conversion of CO2 to carbohydrates in plants • Photosynthesis takes place in plants, green algae, and cyanobacteria. 6 H2 O + 6 H2 O + energy (from su n ligh t) chloroph yll C6 H1 2 O6 + 6 H2 O Glu cose 29-4 Synthesis of Glucose Gluconeogenesis: The synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources. • These sources are most commonly pyruvate, citric acid cycle intermediates, and glucogenic amino acids. • Gluconeogenesis is not the exact reversal of glycolysis; that is, pyruvate to glucose does not occur by reversing the steps of glucose to pyruvate. • There are three irreversible steps in glycolysis: ---Phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate + ATP. ---Fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate. ---Glucose to glucose 6-phosphate. • These three steps are reversed in gluconeogenesis, but by different reactions and using different enzymes. 29-5 Synthesis of Glucose Figure 29.1 Gluconeogenesis. 29-6 Synthesis of Glucose Figure 29.1 Gluconeogenesis (continued) 29-7 Other Carbohydrates Glucose is converted to other hexoses and to di-, oligo-, and polysaccharides. • The common step in all of these syntheses is activation of glucose by uridine triphosphate (UTP) to form uridine diphosphate glucose (UDP-glucose) + Pi . H CH2 OH O H H OH HO H O H O O O-P-O-P-OCH2 O O OH H HN O O H HO Uridine d iphosph ate glu cose (UD P-glucose) N H H OH 29-8 Other Carbohydrates • glycogenesis: The synthesis of glycogen from glucose. Glu cose 1-ph osp hate + UTP (Glucose)n + UD P-glucose UD P-glucose + pyrophosp hate (Glucos e)n+1 + UD P Glu cose 1-ph osp hate + UTP + (Glucose)n (Glucos e)n+1 + UD P + pyrophosp hate • The biosynthesis of other di-, oligo-, and polysaccharides also uses this common activation step to form an appropriate UDP derivative. 29-9 The Cori Cycle Figure 29.2 Lactate from glycolysis in muscle is transported to the liver, where gluconeogensis converts it back to glucose. 29-10 Fatty Acid Biosynthesis While degradation of fatty acids takes place in mitochondria, the majority of fatty acid synthesis takes place in the cytosol. These two pathways have in common that they both involve acetyl CoA. • Acetyl CoA is the end product of each spiral of boxidation. • Fatty acids are synthesized two carbon atoms at a time • The source of these two carbons is the acetyl group of acetyl CoA. The key to fatty acid synthesis is a multienzyme complex called acyl carrier protein, ACP-SH. 29-11 Fatty Acid Biosynthesis Figure 29.3 The biosynthesis of fatty acids. • ACP has a side chain that carries the growing fatty acid • ACP rotates counterclockwise, and its side chain sweeps over the multienzyme system (empty spheres). 29-12 Fatty Acid Biosynthesis Step 1: Priming of the system by acetyl-CoA. O CH3 C-SCoA + HS-ACP A cetyl-CoA O CH3 C-S-ACP + HS-CoA Acetyl-ACP O CH3 C-S-ACP + HS-synth ase Acetyl-ACP O CH3 C-S-Synthas e + HS-ACP Acetyl-synthase O CH3 C-SCoA + HS-synth ase A cetyl-CoA O CH3 C-S-synthas e + HS-CoA Acetyl-synthase 29-13 Fatty Acid Biosynthesis • Step 2: ACP-malonyltransferase reaction: O CH2 C-SCoA + HS-ACP O CH2 C-S-ACP + HS-CoA COOMalonyl-CoA COOMalonyl-ACP • Step 3: Condensation reaction: O O CH3 C-S-synth ase + CH2 C-A CP COOAcetyl-synthase Malonyl-ACP O O CH3 C-CH2 - C-S- A CP + CO 2 + HS-synth ase Acetoacetyl-ACP 29-14 Fatty Acid Biosynthesis • Step 4: The first reduction: O O CH3 C-CH2 - C-S- A CP + N AD PH + H+ Acetoacetyl-ACP OH H H3 C C O CH2 -C- S- ACP + N AD P+ • Step 5: Dehydration:D-b-Hydroxybutyryl-ACP H H3 C OH C O CH2 -C- S- ACP D-b-Hydroxybutyryl-ACP O C-S-A CP H C C H3 C H Crotonyl-ACP + H2 O 29-15 Fatty Acid Biosynthesis • Step 6: the second reduction: O H C-S-A CP C H3 C C H Crotonyl-ACP + N AD PH + H+ O CH3 -CH 2 - CH2 -C- S- ACP + N AD P+ Butyryl-ACP 29-16 Fatty Acid Biosynthesis • The cycle now repeats on butyryl-ACP. O O CH 3 CH 2 CH2 C-S- ACP + CH 2 C-S-A CP Butyryl-ACP CO 2 Malonyl-ACP 3. 4. 5. 6. condens ation reduction dehydration reduction O CH3 CH2 CH 2 CH 2 CH2 C- S- ACP Hexanoyl-ACP • Chains up to C16 (palmitic acid) are obtained by this sequence of reactions. 29-17 Fatty Acid Biosynthesis • Higher fatty acids, for example C18 (stearic acid), are obtained by addition of one or more additional C2 fragments by a different enzyme system. • Unsaturated fatty acids are synthesized from saturated fatty acids by enzyme-catalyzed oxidation at the appropriate point on the hydrocarbon chain. • The structure of NADP+ is the same as NAD+ except that there is an additional phosphate group on carbon 3’ of one of the ribose units. R-CH2 -CH2 -( CH2 ) nCOOH + O2 + NADPH + H+ enzyme R (CH2 ) n COOH + 2 H2 O + NADP+ C C H H 29-18 Membrane Lipids The two building blocks for the synthesis of membrane lipids are: • Activated fatty acids in the form of their acyl CoA derivatives. • Glycerol 1-phosphate, which is obtained by reduction of dihydroxyacetone phosphate (from glycolysis). CH2 -OH + NADH + H+ C=O 2CH2 -OPO3 D ihydroxyaceton e ph osp hate CH2 -OH + NAD+ HO CH 2CH2 -OPO3 Glycerol 1-p hosphate 29-19 Membrane Lipids • Glycerol 1-phosphate combines with two acyl CoA molecules, which may be the same or different: CH2 -OH O + 2 RC-S-CoA HO CH CH2 -OPO3 2 Glycerol Acyl CoA 1-phosp hate O CH2 -OCR O + 2 CoA-SH RCO CH CH2 -OPO3 2 A phosp hatidate • To complete the synthesis of a phospholipid, an activated serine, choline, or ethanolamine is added to the phosphatidate by formation of a phosphoric ester. • Sphingolipids and glycolipids are assembled in similar fashion from the appropriate building blocks. 29-20 Cholesterol All carbon atoms of cholesterol as well as of the steroids synthesized from it are derived from the two-carbon acetyl group of acetyl CoA. • Synthesis starts with reaction of three molecules of acetyl CoA to form the six-carbon compound 3hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA (HMG-CoA). • The enzyme HMG-CoA reductase then catalyzes the reduction of the thioester group to a primary alcohol. O 3 CH3 CSCoA Acetyl CoA O - O OH O SCoA 3-Hyd roxy-3methylglutaryl-CoA HMG-CoA reductase O - OH O OH Mevalonate 29-21 Cholesterol • In a series of steps requiring ATP, mevalonate undergoes phosporylation and decarboxylation to give the C5 compound, isopentenyl pyrophosphate. • This compound has the carbon skeleton of isoprene, and is a key building block for all terpenes (Section 12.5) and steroids. O - OH O OH Mevalonate OP2 O6 3 Isopentenyl pyrophos phate Is oprene 29-22 Cholesterol • Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (C5) is the building block for the synthesis of geranyl pyrophosphate (C10) and farnesyl pyrophosphate (C15). • In these structural formulas, the bonds joining isoprene units are shown in red. OP2 O6 3 Geranyl pyrophos phate OP2 O6 3 Farnesyl pyrophos phate 29-23 Cholesterol • Two farnesyl pyrophosphate (C15) units are joined to form squalene (C30) and, in a series of at least 25 steps, squalene is converted to cholesterol (C30). Cholesterol HO • Isopentenyl pyrophosphate is a key building block: Steroid hormon es Ch oles terol 3- OP2 O6 Is op entenyl pyrop hosph ate Bile acids Terp enes 29-24 Amino Acids Most nonessential amino acids are synthesized from intermediates of either glycolysis or the citric acid cycle. • Glutamate, for example, is synthesized by amination and reduction of a-ketoglutarate, a citric acid cycle intermediate: O O + O- C- CH2 - CH 2 - C-COO - + N H4 N AD PH + H+ a-Ketoglutarate N AD P+ O - N H3 + O- C- CH2 - CH 2 - CH- COO Glutamate 29-25 Amino Acids • Glutamate in turn serves as an intermediate in the synthesis of several amino acids by the transfer of its amino group by transamination. COOCOOC= O + CH- NH3 + CH3 CH2 CH2 COOPyruvate Glutamate COOCH- NH3 + + CH3 Alanine COOC= O CH2 CH2 COOa-Ketoglutarate 29-26 Amino Acids a-Ketoglutarate Glutamate Glutamine Proline Arginine 3-Phosphoglycerate Serine Cys teine Glycine Oxaloacetate As partate As paragine Methionine Threonine Isoleucine Lysine Pyruvate Valine Alanine Leucine Phosphoenolpyruvate + Erythros e 4-phos phate Phenylalanine Tyrosine Tryptophan Ribose 5-phosphate Histidine 29-27 Chapter 29 Biosynthetic Pathways End Chapter 29 29-28