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VERBS
A L E R T S : (1) Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction connecting two independent clauses; see 23b. (2) When independent clauses are
long or contain commas, use a subordinating conjunction—or use a semicolon to connect the sentences; see 24d.
EXERCISE 7-11
Decide whether each of the following sentences is simple,
compound, complex, or compound-complex. For help, consult 7o.
EXAMPLE
Many people would love to eat a healthy meal at a fast-food restaurant or a food concession at the movies. (simple)
1. A fried-chicken sandwich packs an enormous number of calories and fat,
and a fried-fish sandwich is no better.
2. You can purchase other relatively healthy meals at a fast-food restaurant, if
you first get to know the chart of nutritional values provided for customers.
3. Even though US government regulations require that nutritional charts
be posted on the wall in the public areas of every fast-food restaurant,
consumers often ignore the information, and they choose main meals and
side dishes with the most flavor, calories, and fat.
4. A healthy meal available at many fast-food restaurants is a salad with lowfat dressing, along with bottled water.
5. In truth, many people need to stay away from fast-food restaurants and
food concessions at the movies and thereby avoid the tasty temptations of
high-calorie foods.
CHAPTER 8
Verbs
8a
What do verbs do?
A verb expresses an action, an occurrence, or a state of being. Verbs also
reveal when something occurs—in the present, the past, or the future.
Many people overeat on Thanksgiving. [action]
Mother’s Day fell early this year. [occurrence]
Memorial Day is tomorrow. [state of being]
Verbs convey other information as well; see Box 8-1. For types of Verbs, see
Box 8-2.
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What do verbs do?
B OX 8 - 1
8a
S U M M A RY
Information that verbs convey
PERSON
NUMBER
TENSE
MOOD
VOICE
First person (the speaker: I dance), second person (the one
spoken to: you dance), or third person (the one spoken
about: the dog dances).
Singular (one) or plural (more than one).
Past (we danced), present (we dance), or future (we will
dance); see 8g through 8k.
Moods are indicative (we dance), imperative (commands
and polite requests: Dance), or conditional (speculation,
wishes: if we were dancing . . .); see 8l and 8m.
Active voice or passive voice; see 8n through 8p.
B OX 8 - 2
S U M M A RY
Types of verbs
MAIN VERB
AUXILIARY VERB
LINKING VERB
TRANSITIVE VERB
INTRANSITIVE VERB
The word in a PREDICATE that says
something about the SUBJECT: She danced
for the group.
A verb that combines with a main verb to
convey information about TENSE, MOOD, or
VOICE (8e). The verbs be, do, and have can
be auxiliary verbs or main verbs. The verbs
can, could, may, might, should, would, must,
and others are MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS. They
add shades of meaning such as ability or
possibility to verbs: She might dance again.
The verb that links a subject to a
COMPLEMENT, a word or words that rename
or describe the subject: She was happy
dancing. Be is the most common linking
verb; sometimes sense verbs (smell, taste) or
verbs of perception (seem, feel) function as
linking verbs. See also Box 8-3.
The verb followed by a DIRECT OBJECT that
completes the verb’s message: They sent her
a fan letter.
A verb that does not require a direct object:
Yesterday she danced.
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VERBS
Linking verbs are main verbs that indicate a state of being or a condition. They link a SUBJECT with one or more words that rename or describe
the subject, which is called a SUBJECT COMPLEMENT. A linking verb works
like an equal sign between a subject and its complement. Box 8-3 shows how
linking verbs function in sentences.
B OX 8 - 3
S U M M A RY
Linking verbs
n Linking verbs may be forms of the verb be (am, is, was, were; see 8e
for a complete list).
George Washington
SUBJECT
was
LINKING
VERB
president.
COMPLEMENT (PREDICATE
NOMINATIVE: RENAMES SUBJECT)
n Linking verbs may deal with the senses (look, smell, taste, sound,
feel).
George Washington
SUBJECT
sounded
LINKING
VERB
confident.
COMPLEMENT (PREDICATE
ADJECTIVE: DESCRIBES SUBJECT)
n Linking verbs can be verbs that convey a sense of existing or
becoming—appear, seem, become, get, grow, turn, remain, stay, and
prove, for example.
George Washington
grew
old.
SUBJECT
LINKING
VERB
COMPLEMENT (PREDICATE
ADJECTIVE DESCRIBES SUBJECT)
n To test whether a verb other than a form of be is functioning as a
linking verb, substitute was (for a singular subject) or were (for a
plural subject) for the original verb. If the sentence makes sense, the
original verb is functioning as a linking verb.
NO
YES
George Washington grew a beard
George Washington
was a beard. [Grew is not functioning as a linking verb.]
George Washington grew old
George Washington was
old. [Grew is functioning as a linking verb.]
VERB FORMS
8b
What are the forms of main verbs?
A main verb names an action (People dance), an occurrence (Christmas
comes once a year), or a state of being (It will be warm tomorrow). Every
main verb has five forms.
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What is the -s form of a verb?
■
The simple form conveys an action, occurrence, or state of being taking place
in the present (I laugh) or, with an AUXILIARY VERB, in the future (I will
laugh).
■
The past-tense form conveys an action, occurrence, or state completed in
the past (I laughed). REGULAR VERBS add -ed or -d to the simple form.
IRREGULAR VERBS vary (see Box 8-4 on page 129).
■
The past participle form in regular verbs uses the same form as the past tense.
Irregular verbs vary; see Box 8-4. To function as a verb, a past participle must
combine with a SUBJECT and one or more auxiliary verbs (I have laughed).
Otherwise, past participles function as ADJECTIVES (crumbled cookies).
■
The present participle form adds -ing to the simple form (laughing). To
function as a verb, a present participle combines with a subject and one or
more auxiliary verbs (I was laughing). Otherwise, present participles function as adjectives (my laughing friends) or as NOUNS (Laughing is healthy).
■
The infinitive usually consists of to and the simple form following to
(I started to laugh at his joke); see 9i. The infinitive functions as a noun or
an adjective, not a verb.
8c
ESL NOTE: When verbs function as other parts of speech, they’re called
When present participles function as nouns, they’re called GERUNDS. For information
about using gerunds and infinitives as OBJECTS after certain verbs, see
Chapter 43.
VERBALS: INFINITIVES, PRESENT PARTICIPLES, PAST PARTICIPLES.
8c
What is the - s form of a verb?
The -s form of a verb is the third-person singular in the PRESENT TENSE. The
ending -s (or -es) is added to the verb’s SIMPLE FORM (smell becomes smells,
as in The bread smells delicious).
Be and have are irregular verbs. For the third-person singular, present
tense, be uses is and have uses has.
The cheesecake is popular.
The éclair has chocolate icing.
If you tend to drop the -s or -es ending when you speak, always use it when
you write. Proofread carefully to make sure you’ve not omitted any -s forms.
ALERT: In informal speech, the LINKING, or copula, VERB to be sometimes
doesn’t change forms in the present tense. However, ACADEMIC WRITING
requires standard third-person singular forms in the present tense.
He is [not be] hungry.
The bakery has [not have] fresh bread.
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EXERCISE 8-1
Rewrite each sentence, changing the subjects to the word
or words given in parentheses. Change the form of the verbs shown in italics to match the new subject. Keep all sentences in the present tense. For
help, consult 8c.
EXAMPLE
The Oregon giant earthworm escapes all attempts at detection.
(Oregon giant earthworms)
Oregon giant earthworms escape all attempts at detection.
1. Before declaring the Oregon giant earthworm a protected species, US
government agencies require concrete proof that it is not extinct. (a government agency) (they)
2. A scientist who finds one alive will demonstrate that Oregon giant earthworms do still exist, in spite of no one’s having seen any for over twenty
years. (Scientists) (the Oregon giant earthworm)
3. Last seen in the Willamette Valley near Portland, Oregon, the earthworms
are white, and they smell like lilies. (the earthworm) (it)
4. Oregon giant earthworms grow up to three feet long. (The Oregon giant
earthworm)
5. A clump of soil with a strange shape indicates that the giant creatures
continue to live, but to demonstrate that they are not extinct, only a real
specimen will do. (clumps of soil) (creature) (it)
8d
What is the difference between regular
and irregular verbs?
A regular verb forms its PAST TENSE and PAST PARTICIPLE by adding -ed or
-d to the SIMPLE FORM: type, typed; cook, cooked; work, worked. Most verbs
in English are regular.
In informal speech, some people skip over the -ed sound, pronouncing it
softly or not at all. In ACADEMIC WRITING, however, you’re required to use it.
If you’re not used to hearing or pronouncing this sound, proofread carefully
to see that you have all the needed -ed endings in your writing.
NO
YES
The cake was suppose to be tasty.
The cake was supposed to be tasty.
Irregular verbs, in contrast, don’t consistently add -ed or -d to form the
past tense and past participle. Some irregular verbs change an internal vowel
to make past tense and past participle: sing, sang, sung. Some change an
internal vowel and add an ending other than -ed or -d: grow, grew, grown.
Some use the simple form throughout: cost, cost, cost. Unfortunately, a
verb’s simple form doesn’t provide a clue about whether the verb is irregular or regular.
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8d
What is the difference between regular and irregular verbs?
Although you can always look up the principal parts of any verb, memorizing any you don’t know solidly is much more efficient in the long run.
About two hundred verbs in English are irregular. Box 8-4 lists the most frequently used irregular verbs.
A L E R T: For information about changing y to i, or doubling a final consonant before adding the -ed ending, see 21d.
B OX 8 - 4
S U M M A RY
Common irregular verbs
SIMPLE FORM
PAST TENSE
PAST PARTICIPLE
arise
awake
be (is, am, are)
bear
beat
become
begin
bend
bet
bid (“to offer”)
bid (“to command”)
bind
bite
blow
break
bring
build
burst
buy
cast
catch
choose
cling
come
cost
creep
cut
arose
awoke or awaked
was, were
bore
beat
became
began
bent
bet
bid
bade
bound
bit
blew
broke
brought
built
burst
bought
cast
caught
chose
clung
came
cost
crept
cut
arisen
awaked or awoken
been
borne or born
beaten
become
begun
bent
bet
bid
bidden
bound
bitten or bit
blown
broken
brought
built
burst
bought
cast
caught
chosen
clung
come
cost
crept
cut
➞
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VERBS
Common irregular verbs (Continued)
SIMPLE FORM
PAST TENSE
PAST PARTICIPLE
deal
dig
dive
do
draw
drink
drive
eat
fall
feed
feel
fight
find
flee
fling
fly
forbid
forget
forgive
forsake
freeze
get
give
go
grow
hang (“to suspend”)*
have
hear
hide
hit
hurt
dealt
dug
dived or dove
did
drew
drank
drove
ate
fell
fed
felt
fought
found
fled
flung
flew
forbade or forbad
forgot
forgave
forsook
froze
got
gave
went
grew
hung
had
heard
hid
hit
hurt
dealt
dug
dived
done
drawn
drunk
driven
eaten
fallen
fed
felt
fought
found
fled
flung
flown
forbidden
forgotten or forgot
forgiven
forsaken
frozen
got or gotten
given
gone
grown
hung
had
heard
hidden
hit
hurt
*When it means “to execute by hanging,” hang is a regular verb: In wartime, some
armies routinely hanged deserters.
130
➞
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8d
What is the difference between regular and irregular verbs?
Common irregular verbs (Continued)
SIMPLE FORM
PAST TENSE
PAST PARTICIPLE
keep
know
lay
lead
leave
lend
let
lie
light
lose
make
mean
pay
prove
quit
read
rid
ride
ring
rise
run
say
see
seek
send
set
shake
shine (“to glow”)*
shoot
show
shrink
kept
knew
laid
led
left
lent
let
lay
lighted or lit
lost
made
meant
paid
proved
quit
read
rid
rode
rang
rose
ran
said
saw
sought
sent
set
shook
shone
shot
showed
shrank
kept
known
laid
led
left
lent
let
lain
lighted or lit
lost
made
meant
paid
proved or proven
quit
read
rid
ridden
rung
risen
run
said
seen
sought
sent
set
shaken
shone
shot
shown or showed
shrunk
*When it means “to polish,” shine is a regular verb: We shined our shoes.
➞
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VERBS
Common irregular verbs (Continued)
132
SIMPLE FORM
PAST TENSE
PAST PARTICIPLE
sing
sink
sit
slay
sleep
sling
speak
spend
spin
spring
stand
steal
sting
stink
stride
strike
strive
swear
sweep
swim
swing
take
teach
tear
tell
think
throw
understand
wake
wear
wring
write
sang
sank or sunk
sat
slew
slept
slung
spoke
spent
spun
sprang or sprung
stood
stole
stung
stank or stunk
strode
struck
strove
swore
swept
swam
swung
took
taught
tore
told
thought
threw
understood
woke or waked
wore
wrung
wrote
sung
sunk
sat
slain
slept
slung
spoken
spent
spun
sprung
stood
stolen
stung
stunk
stridden
struck
striven
sworn
swept
swum
swung
taken
taught
torn
told
thought
thrown
understood
waked or woken
worn
wrung
written
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What are auxiliary verbs?
8e
E X E R C I S E 8 - 2 Write the correct past-tense form of the regular verbs given
in parentheses. For help, consult 8d.
EXAMPLE The Stanford University football team (uses) used an innovative
system to cool down after workouts.
(1) Many athletes (need) ______ a way to lower their body temperatures quickly. (2) They normally just (dump) ______ ice on themselves,
but this method (lack) ______ efficiency and sometimes even (cause)
______ collapse. (3) To solve the problem, scientists (develop) ______
the Rapid Thermal Exchange system, which (cools) ______ an athlete
from inside. (4) To test the new device, a football player (places) ______
his hand on a cool metal plate inside an airtight chamber, where a mild
vacuum pressure (increases) ______ blood flow. (5) This (results)
______ in lowered body temperature as the cooled-down blood (flows)
______ throughout the body and (reduces) ______ the discomfort of
being overly hot.
EXERCISE 8-3
Write the correct past-tense form of the irregular verbs
given in parentheses. For help, consult Box 8-4 in 8d.
EXAMPLE
Ben Johnson (think) thought as he (speak) spoke to prison inmates
that his story might help them.
(1) At age 33, Ben Johnson (become) ______ the youngest chief of
pediatric neurosurgery in the United States at one of the top hospitals,
Baltimore’s Johns Hopkins. (2) This accomplishment seemed impossible
for a young African-American youth who (grow) ______ up in run-down
apartments in Boston and Detroit. (3) His mother, with only a thirdgrade education herself, (teach) ______ Ben to care about his education.
(4) Ben and his older brother, Curtis, (write) ______ two book reports
each week and watched no more than three TV shows a week. (5) By seventh grade, Ben (be) ______ at the top of his class at Wilson Junior High.
8e
What are auxiliary verbs?
Auxiliary verbs, also called helping verbs, combine with MAIN VERBS to make
VERB PHRASES.
Box 8-5 on the next page shows how auxiliary verbs work.
Using be, do, have
The three most common auxiliary verbs are be, do, and have. These three
verbs can also be main verbs. Their forms vary more than most irregular
verbs, as shown in Boxes 8-6 and 8-7 on pages 134 and 135.
A L E R T: In ACADEMIC WRITING, always use the standard forms for be,
do, and have, as shown in Boxes 8-6 and 8-7.
The gym is [not be] a busy place.
The gym is [not be] filling with spectators.
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VERBS
B OX 8 - 5
PAT T E R N
Auxiliary verbs
AUXILIARY
VERB
n I am
MAIN
VERB
shopping
for new shoes.
VERB PHRASE
AUXILIARY
VERB
n Clothing prices have
MAIN
VERB
soared recently.
VERB PHRASE
AUXILIARY
VERB
n Leather shoes might
MAIN
VERB
cost hundreds of dollars.
VERB PHRASE
B OX 8 - 6
S U M M A RY
Forms of the verb be
be
is
was, were
being
been
SIMPLE FORM
-S FORM
PAST TENSE
PRESENT PARTICIPLE
PAST PARTICIPLE
Person
Present Tense
I
you (singular)
he, she, it
we
you (plural)
they
am
are
is
are
are
are
Past Tense
was
were
was
were
were
were
E S L N O T E : When be, do, and have function as auxiliary verbs, change
their form to agree with a third-person singular subject—and don’t add -s to
the main verb.
NO
YES
134
Does the library closes at 6:00?
Does the library close at 6:00?
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What are auxiliary verbs?
B OX 8 - 7
8e
S U M M A RY
Forms of the verbs do and have
do
does
did
doing
done
SIMPLE FORM
-S FORM
PAST TENSE
PRESENT PARTICIPLE
PAST PARTICIPLE
have
has
had
having
had
Modal auxiliary verbs
Can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, and must are the nine
modal auxiliary verbs. Modal auxiliary verbs communicate ability, permission, obligation, advisability, necessity, or possibility. They never change form.
Exercise can lengthen lives. [possibility]
She can jog for five miles. [ability]
The exercise must occur regularly. [necessity, obligation]
People should protect their bodies. [advisability]
May I exercise? [permission]
E S L N O T E : For more about modal auxiliary verbs and the meanings they
communicate, see Chapter 44.
E X E R C I S E 8 - 4 Using the auxiliary verbs in the list below, fill in the blanks
in the following passage. Use each auxiliary word only once, even if a listed
word can fit into more than one blank. For help, consult section 8e.
are
have
may
will
might
can
has
EXAMPLE Psychologists have discovered that most personal memories
focus on recent events.
(1) Most adults ______ recall recent events more readily than distant ones when they ______ presented with a standard test of
memory. (2) However, an important exception ______ been found
among older adults, those age 50 and above. (3) People in this older
age group ______ most readily recall events that happened in their
late teens and early adulthood. (4) Researchers ______ concluded
that because many significant life events, such as getting married and
choosing a career, occur during this period, older adults ______
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VERBS
prefer to look back on this highly memorable period. (5) Similarly,
younger adults ______ tend to focus on those same memorable
events, which means that they summon more recent memories.
8f
What are intransitive and transitive verbs?
A verb is intransitive when an OBJECT isn’t required to complete the verb’s
meaning: I sing. A verb is transitive when an object is necessary to complete
the verb’s meaning: I need a guitar. Many verbs have both transitive and
intransitive meanings. Some verbs are only transitive: need, have, like, owe,
remember. Only transitive verbs function in the PASSIVE VOICE. Dictionaries
label verbs as transitive (vt) or intransitive (vi). Box 8-8 shows how transitive
and intransitive verbs operate in sentences.
B OX 8 - 8
S U M M A RY
Comparing intransitive and transitive verbs
INTRANSITIVE (OBJECT NOT NEEDED)
They sat together quietly. [Together and quietly are not direct objects; they
are modifiers.]
The cat sees in the dark. [In the dark is not a direct object; it is a
modifier.]
I can hear well. [Well is not a direct object; it is a modifier.]
TRANSITIVE (OBJECT NEEDED)
They sent a birthday card to me. [Birthday card is a direct object.]
The cat sees the dog. [Dog is a direct object.]
I can hear you. [You is a direct object.]
The verbs lie and lay are particularly confusing. Lie means “to recline, to
place oneself down, or to remain.” Lie is intransitive (it cannot be followed by
an object). Lay means “to put something down.” Lay is transitive (it must be followed by an object). As you can see in Box 8-9 on the next page, the word lay
is both the past tense of lie and the present-tense simple form of lay. That makes
things difficult. Our best advice is memorize them. Yet truthfully, each time you
use lie and lay, you need to pause, think, and recite the list to yourself.
Two other verb pairs tend to confuse people because of their intransitive
and transitive forms: raise and rise and set and sit.
Raise and set are transitive (they must be followed by an object). Rise
and sit are intransitive (they cannot be followed by an object). Fortunately,
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What are intransitive and transitive verbs?
8f
although each word has a meaning different from the other words, they
don’t share forms: raise, raised, raised; rise, rose, risen; and set, set, set; sit,
sat, sat.
B OX 8 - 9
S U M M A RY
Using lie and lay
SIMPLE FORM
-S FORM
PAST TENSE
PRESENT PARTICIPLE
PAST PARTICIPLE
lie
lay
lie
lies
lay
lying
lain
lay
lays
laid
laying
laid
Intransitive Forms
PRESENT TENSE
PAST TENSE
The hikers lie down to rest.
The hikers lay down to rest.
Transitive Forms
PRESENT TENSE
The hikers lay their backpacks on a rock.
[Backpacks is a direct object.]
PAST TENSE
The hikers laid their backpacks on a rock.
[Backpacks is a direct object.]
EXERCISE 8-5
Underline the correct word of each pair in parentheses. For
help, consult 8f.
EXAMPLE
Whenever I come home, I always check to see where my cat is (laying, lying).
(1) Coming home from jogging one morning, I (laid, lay) my keys on
the counter and saw my cat, Andy, (laying, lying) in a patch of sunlight on
the living room floor. (2) When I (sat, set) down beside him, he (raised,
rose) up on his toes, stretched, and then (laid, lay) down a few feet away.
(3) (Sitting, Setting) there, I reached out to Andy, and my contrary cat
jumped up onto the couch. As he landed, I heard a clinking noise. (4) I
(raised, rose) the bottom of the slipcover, and there (laid, lay) my favorite
earrings, the ones I thought I had lost last week. Deciding he had earned
a special privilege, Andy curled up on a red silk pillow in the corner of
the couch. (5) Since the earrings now (laid, lay) safely in my pocket, I let
him (lay, lie) there undisturbed.
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VERBS
VERB TENSE
8g
What is verb tense?
Verb tense conveys time. Verbs show tense (time) by changing form. Eng-
lish has six verb tenses, divided into simple and perfect groups. The three
simple tenses divide time into present, past, and future. The simple present
tense describes what happens regularly, what takes place in the present, and
what is consistently or generally true. The simple past tense tells of an action
completed or a condition ended. The simple future tense indicates action
yet to be taken or a condition not yet experienced.
Rick wants to speak Spanish fluently. [simple present tense]
Rick wanted to improve rapidly. [simple past tense]
Rick will want to progress even further next year. [simple future tense]
The three perfect tenses also divide time into present, past, and future.
They show more complex time relationships than the simple tenses. For
information on using the perfect tenses, see section 8i.
The three simple tenses and the three perfect tenses also have progressive
forms. These forms indicate that the verb describes what is ongoing or continuing. For information on using progressive forms, see section 8j. Box 8-10
on the next page summarizes verb tenses and progressive forms.
E S L N O T E : Box 8-10 shows that most verb tenses are formed by combining one or more AUXILIARY VERBS with the SIMPLE FORM, the PRESENT PARTICIPLE, or the PAST PARTICIPLE of a MAIN VERB. Auxiliary verbs are necessary
in the formation of most tenses, so never omit them.
NO
YES
8h
I talking to you.
I am talking to you.
How do I use the simple present tense?
The simple present tense uses the SIMPLE FORM of the verb (see 8b). It
describes what happens regularly, what takes place in the present, and what
is generally or consistently true. Also, it can convey a future occurrence with
verbs such as start, stop, begin, end, arrive, and depart.
Calculus class meets every morning. [regularly occurring action]
Mastering calculus takes time. [general truth]
The course ends in eight weeks. [specific future event]
A L E R T: For a work of literature, always describe or discuss the action
in the present tense. This holds true no matter how old the work.
In Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, Juliet’s father wants her to marry
Paris, but Juliet loves Romeo.
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B OX 8 - 1 0
8i
S U M M A RY
Simple, perfect, and progressive tenses
Simple Tenses
Regular
Verb
Irregular
Verb
Progressive
Form
PRESENT
I talk
I eat
I am talking; I am eating
PAST
I talked
I ate
I was talking; I was eating
FUTURE
I will talk
I will eat
I will be talking; I will be
eating
Perfect Tenses
PRESENT
PERFECT
PAST
PERFECT
FUTURE
PERFECT
8i
Regular
Verb
Irregular
Verb
Progressive
Form
I have
talked
I have
eaten
I have been talking;
I have been eating
I had
talked
I had
eaten
I had been talking;
I had been eating
I will have
talked
I will have
eaten
I will have been talking;
I will have been eating
How do I form and use the perfect tenses?
The perfect tenses generally describe actions or occurrences that are still
having an effect at the present time or are having an effect until a specified
time. The perfect tenses are composed of an AUXILIARY VERB and a main
verb’s PAST PARTICIPLE (see 8b).
For the present perfect tense (see Box 8-10), use has only for the
THIRD-PERSON SINGULAR subjects and have for all other subjects. For the
past perfect, use had with the past participle. For the future perfect, use
will have with the past participle.
PRESENT PERFECT
Our government has offered to help. [having effect
now]
PRESENT PERFECT
The drought has created terrible hardship. [having
effect until a specified time—when the rains come]
PAST PERFECT
As soon as the tornado had passed, the heavy rain
started. [Both events occurred in the past; the tornado
occurred before the rain, so the earlier event uses had.]
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VERBS
FUTURE PERFECT
Our chickens’ egg production will have reached five
hundred per day by next year. [The event will occur before a specified time.]
8j
How do I form and use progressive forms?
Progressive forms describe an ongoing action or condition. They also express
habitual or recurring actions or conditions. The present progressive uses the
present-tense form of be that agrees with the subject in PERSON and NUMBER,
plus the -ing form (PRESENT PARTICIPLE) of the main verb. The past progressive uses was or were to agree with the subject in person and number, and it
uses the present participle of the main verb. The future progressive uses will
be and the present participle. The present perfect progressive uses have been
or has been to agree with the subject, plus the -ing form of the main verb. The
past perfect progressive uses had been and the -ing form of the main verb. The
future perfect progressive uses will have been plus the PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
The smog is stinging everyone’s eyes.
[event taking place now]
PAST PROGRESSIVE
Eye drops were selling well last week.
[event ongoing in the past within stated
limits]
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE
We will be ordering more eye drops
than usual this month. [recurring event that
will take place in the future]
PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
Scientists have been warning us about
air pollution for years. [recurring event that
took place in the past and may still take
place]
PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
We had been ordering three cases of eye
drops a month until the smog worsened.
[recurring past event that has now ended]
FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
By May, we will have been selling eye
drops for eight months. [ongoing condition to
be completed at a specific time in the future]
E X E R C I S E 8 - 6 Underline the correct verb in each pair of parentheses. If
more than one answer is possible, be prepared to explain the differences in
meaning between the choices. For help, consult 8g through 8j.
EXAMPLE
Planet Earth (experiences, will be experiencing) a dramatic attack
every eleven years.
1. A huge magnetic force, called a “solar maximum,” (is racing, races) every
eleven years from the sun toward the earth at two million miles per hour.
2. While these occurrences (had, were having) little effect in previous years,
advances in technology today (had made, have made) us vulnerable to the
sun’s shifting winds.
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How do I use tense sequences accurately?
8k
3. Such communication disruptions (cost, have been costing) over
$100 million a year in repairs and lost business, which (affects, has affected) government offices, companies, and individual citizens.
4. Currently, government space scientists (are collecting, will be collecting)
data and soon (are evaluating, will evaluate) the effects of solar maximums
on satellites, airplanes, power lines, oil and gas pipelines, and spacecraft.
5. Space experts at NASA, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
(hope, were hoping) the new “Living with a Star” program (will be telling, will
tell) them how the next solar maximum in 2011 (will affect, was affecting) us.
8k
How do I use tense sequences accurately?
Verb tense sequences communicate time relationships. They help deliver
messages about actions, occurrences, or states that take place at different
times. Tenses in the same sentence can vary depending on when actions (or
occurrences or states) occur. See Box 8-11.
B OX 8 – 1 1
S U M M A RY
Sequence of tenses with independent and
dependent clauses
Verb Tense in the
Independent Clause
Verb Tense to Use in
the Dependent Clause
PRESENT
Use present tense to show same-time action:
• I avoid shellfish because I am allergic to it.
Use past tense to show earlier action:
• I am sure that I deposited the check.
Use present perfect tense to show (1) a period of
time extending from some point in the past to the
present or (2) an indefinite time in the past:
• They say that they have lived in Canada
since 1979.
• I believe that I have seen this movie before.
Use future tense for action to come:
• The book is open because I will be reading it
later.
Use past perfect tense to show earlier action:
• The sprinter knew that she had broken the
record.
Use present tense to state a general truth:
• Columbus determined that the world is
round.
PAST
➞
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VERBS
Sequence of tenses with independent and
dependent clauses (continued)
PRESENT PERFECT OR
PAST PERFECT
Use past tense:
• The bread has become moldy since I
purchased it.
• Sugar prices had already declined when
artificial sweeteners first appeared.
FUTURE
Use present tense to show action
happening at the same time:
• You will be rich if you win the prize.
Use past tense to show earlier action:
• You will have a good chance of winning if you
remembered to send in your entry form.
Use present perfect tense to show future action
occurring sooner than the action of the verb in
the independent clause:
• The river will flood again next year unless
we have built a better dam by then.
FUTURE PERFECT
Use present tense or past perfect tense:
• Dr. Chang will have delivered five thousand
babies by the time she retires.
• Dr. Chang will have delivered five thousand
babies by the time she has retired.
A L E R T: Never use a future-tense verb in a dependent clause when the
verb in the independent clause is in the future tense. Instead, use a presenttense verb in the independent clause.
NO
YES
The river will flood us unless we will prepare our defense.
The river will flood us unless we prepare our defense.
[Prepare is a present-tense verb.]
YES
The river will flood us unless we have prepared our defense.
[Have prepared is a present perfect verb.]
Tense sequences may include INFINITIVES and PARTICIPLES. To name or
describe an activity or occurrence coming either at the same time or after the
time expressed in the MAIN VERB, use the present infinitive.
I hope to buy a used car. [To buy comes at a future time. Hope is the
main verb, and its action is now.]
I hoped to buy a used car. [Hoped is the main verb, and its action is over.]
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What is “mood” in verbs?
8l
I had hoped to buy a used car. [Had hoped is the main verb, and its
action is over.]
The PRESENT PARTICIPLE (a verb’s -ing form) can describe action
happening at the same time.
Driving his new car, the man smiled. [The driving and the smiling
happened at the same time.]
To describe an action that occurs before the action in the main verb, use
the perfect infinitive (to have gone, to have smiled), the PAST PARTICIPLE, or
the present perfect participle (having gone, having smiled).
Candida claimed to have written fifty short stories in college.
[Claimed is the main verb, and to have written happened first.]
Pleased with the short story, Candida mailed it to several magazines.
[Mailed is the main verb, and pleased happened first.]
EXERCISE 8-7
Underline the correct verb in each pair of parentheses that
best suits the sequence of tenses. Be ready to explain your choices. For
help, consult 8k.
EXAMPLE
When he (is, was) seven years old, Yo-Yo Ma, possibly the world’s
greatest living cellist, (moves, moved) to the United States with his
family.
1. Yo-Yo Ma, who (had been born, was born) in France to Chinese parents,
(lived, lives) in Boston, Massachusetts, today and (toured, tours) as one of
the world’s greatest cellists.
2. Mr. Ma’s older sister, Dr. Yeou-Cheng Ma, was nearly the person with the
concert career. She had been training to become a concert violinist until
her brother’s musical genius (began, had begun) to be noticed.
3. Although most people today (knew, know) Mr. Ma as a brilliant cellist, he
(was making, has made) films as well.
4. One year, while he (had been traveling, was traveling) in the Kalahari
Desert, he (films, filmed) dances of southern Africa’s Bush people.
5. When he shows visitors around Boston now, Mr. Ma has been known to
point out the Harvard University library where, he claims, he (fell asleep,
was falling asleep) in the stacks when he (had been, was) a student.
MOOD
8l
What is “mood” in verbs?
Mood in verbs conveys an attitude toward the action in a sentence. English
has three moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive. Use the indicative
mood to make statements about real things, about highly likely things, and
for questions about fact.
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VERBS
INDICATIVE
The door to the tutoring center opened. [real]
She seemed to be looking for someone. [highly likely]
Do you want to see a tutor? [question about a fact]
The imperative mood expresses commands and direct requests. Often
the subject is omitted in an imperative sentence, but nevertheless the subject is implied to be either you or one of the indefinite pronouns such as
anybody, somebody, or everybody.
A L E R T: Use an exclamation point after a strong command; use a period after a mild command or a request (22e, 22a).
IMPERATIVE
Please shut the door.
Watch out! That screw is loose.
The subjunctive mood expresses speculation, other unreal conditions,
conjectures, wishes, recommendations, indirect requests, and demands.
Often, the words that signal the subjunctive mood are if, as if, as though, and
unless. In speaking, subjunctive verb forms were once used frequently in
English, but they’re heard far less today. Nevertheless, in ACADEMIC WRITING, you need to use the subjunctive mood.
SUBJUNCTIVE
8m
If I were you, I would ask for a tutor.
What are subjunctive forms?
For the present subjunctive, always use the SIMPLE FORM of the verb for all
PERSONS and NUMBERS.
The prosecutor asks that she testify [not testifies] again.
It is important that they be [not are] allowed to testify.
For the past subjunctive, use the simple past tense: I wish that I had a car.
The one exception is for the past subjunctive of be: Use were for all forms.
I wish that I were [not was] leaving on vacation today.
They asked if she were [not was] leaving on vacation today.
Using the subjunctive in if, as if, as though,
and unless clauses
In dependent clauses introduced by if and sometimes by unless, the subjunctive describes speculations or conditions contrary to fact.
If it were [not was] to rain, attendance at the race would be disappointing. [speculation]
The runner looked as if he were [not was] winded, but he said he wasn’t.
[a condition contrary to fact]
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What are subjunctive forms?
8m
In an unless clause, the subjunctive signals that what the clause says is
highly unlikely.
Unless rain were [not was] to create floods, the race will be held this
Sunday. [Floods are highly unlikely.]
Not every clause introduced by if, unless, as if, or as though requires the
subjunctive. Use the subjunctive only when the dependent clause describes
speculation or a condition contrary to fact.
INDICATIVE
If she is going to leave late, I will drive her to the race.
[Her leaving late is highly likely.]
SUBJUNCTIVE
If she were going to leave late, I would drive her to the
race. [Her leaving late is a speculation.]
Using the subjunctive in that clauses
When that clauses describe wishes, requests, demands, or recommendations, the subjunctive can convey the message.
I wish that this race were [not was] over. [a wish about something happening now]
He wishes that he had seen [not saw] the race. [a wish about something
that is past]
The judges are demanding that the doctor examine [not examines] the
runners. [a demand for something to happen in the future]
Also, MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS would, could, might, and should can convey speculations and conditions contrary to fact.
If the runner were [not was] faster, we would see a better race. [Would
is a modal auxiliary verb.]
The issue here is that when an INDEPENDENT CLAUSE expresses a conditional statement using a modal auxiliary verb, you want to be sure that in the
DEPENDENT CLAUSE you don’t use another modal auxiliary verb.
NO
YES
If I would have trained for the race, I might have won.
If I had trained for the race, I might have won.
E X E R C I S E 8 - 8 Fill in each blank with the correct form of the verb given in
parentheses. For help, consult 8l and 8m.
EXAMPLE
Imagining the possibility of brain transplants requires that we (to be)
be open-minded.
(1) If almost any organ other than the brain (to be) _____ the candidate for a swap, we would probably give our consent. (2) If the brain
(to be) _____ to hold whatever impulses form our personalities, few
people would want to risk a transplant. (3) Many popular movies have
asked that we (to suspend) _____ disbelief and imagine the consequences should a personality actually (to be) _____ transferred to
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VERBS
another body. (4) In real life, however, the complexities of a successful
brain transplant require that not-yet-developed surgical techniques (to
be) _____ used. (5) For example, it would be essential that during the
actual transplant each one of the 500 trillion nerve connections within the brain (to continue) _____ to function as though the brain (to be)
_____ lying undisturbed in a living human body.
VOICE
8n
What is “voice” in verbs?
Voice in a verb tells whether a SUBJECT acts or is acted upon. English has two
voices, active and passive. A subject in the active voice performs the action.
Most clams live in salt water. [The subject clams does the acting: Clams
live.]
They burrow into the sandy bottoms of shallow waters. [The subject
they does the acting: They burrow.]
A subject in the passive voice is acted upon. The person or thing doing
the acting often appears in a PHRASE that starts with by. Verbs in the passive
voice use forms of be, have, and will as AUXILIARY VERBS with the PAST PARTICIPLE of the MAIN VERB.
Clams are considered a delicacy by many people. [The subject clams is
acted upon by many people.]
Some types of clams are highly valued by seashell collectors. [The subject types is acted upon by seashell collectors.]
8o
How do I write in the active,
not passive, voice?
Because the ACTIVE VOICE emphasizes the doer of an action, active constructions are more direct and dramatic. Active constructions usually require fewer
words than passive constructions, which makes for greater conciseness (see
16c). Most sentences in the PASSIVE VOICE can be converted to active voice.
PASSIVE
ACTIVE
8p
African tribal masks are often imitated by Western sculptors.
Western sculptors often imitate African tribal masks.
What are proper uses of the passive voice?
Although the active voice is usually best, in special circumstances you need
to use the passive voice.
When no one knows who or what did something or when the doer of an
action isn’t important, writers use the passive voice.
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What are proper uses of the passive voice?
8p
The lock was broken sometime after four o’clock. [Who broke the lock
is unknown.]
In 1899, the year I was born, a peace conference was held at The Hague.
[The doers of the action—holders of the conference—aren’t important.]
—E. B. White, “Unity”
Sometimes the action in the sentence is more important than the doer of
the action. For example, if you want to focus on historical discoveries in a
narrative, use the passive voice. Conversely, if you want to emphasize the
people making the discoveries, use the active voice.
ACTIVE
Joseph Priestley discovered oxygen in 1774. [Joseph Priestley
is the subject.]
PASSIVE
Oxygen was discovered in 1774 by Joseph Priestley. [Oxygen
is the subject.]
ACTIVE
The postal clerk sent the unsigned letter before I could
retrieve it from the mailroom. [The emphasis is on the person,
the postal clerk, rather than on the action, sent.]
PASSIVE
The unsigned letter was sent before it could be retrieved
from the postal clerk. [The emphasis is on the events, was sent
and could be retrieved, not on the doer of the action, the unknown sender and the postal clerk.]
In former years, the social sciences and natural sciences preferred the
passive voice. Recently, style manuals for these disciplines have been advising writers to use the active voice whenever possible. “Verbs are vigorous,
direct communicators,” point out the editors of the Publication Manual of
the American Psychological Association. “Use the active rather than the passive voice,” they say.*
E X E R C I S E 8 - 9 First, determine which sentences are in the active voice
and which the passive voice. Second, rewrite the sentence in the other
voice, and then decide which voice better suits the meaning. Be ready to
explain your choice. For help, consult 8n through 8p.
EXAMPLE
In the West African country of Ghana, a few woodcarvers are creating coffins that reflect their occupants’ special interests. (active;
change to passive)
In the West African country of Ghana, coffins that reflect their occupants’ special interests are being created by a few woodcarvers.
1. A coffin in the shape of a green onion was chosen by a farmer.
2. A hunter’s family buried him in a wooden coffin shaped like a leopard.
*American Psychological Association, Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 5th ed. (Washington: APA, 2001) 41.
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PRONOUNS: CASE AND REFERENCE
3. A dead chief was carried through his fishing village by friends and relatives
bearing his body in a large pink wooden replica of a fish.
4. The family of a wealthy man who greatly admired cars buried him in a
coffin shaped like a Mercedes car.
5. Although a few of these fantasy coffins have been displayed in museums,
most of them end up buried in the ground.
CHAPTER 9
Pronouns: Case and Reference
PRONOUN CASE
9a
What does “case” mean?
Case applies in different ways to PRONOUNS and to NOUNS. For pronouns, case
refers to three pronoun forms: the subjective (pronoun as a SUBJECT), the
objective (pronoun as an OBJECT), and the possessive (pronouns used in pos-
sessive constructions). For nouns, case refers to only one noun form: the possessive. (For help in using apostrophes in the possessive case, see Chapter 26.)
9b
What are personal pronouns?
Personal pronouns refer to persons or things. Box 9-1 shows the case forms
of personal pronouns (subjective, objective, and possessive), in both the singular and the plural.
Many of the most difficult questions about pronoun case concern
who/whom and whoever/whomever. For a full discussion of how to choose
between them, see 9g.
B OX 9 - 1
S U M M A RY
Case forms of personal pronouns
SINGULAR
PLURAL
148
Subjective
Objective
Possessive
I, you, he,
she, it
we, you, they
me, you, him,
her, it
us, you, them
mine, yours, his,
hers, its
ours, yours,
theirs