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PYB1
Approaches in Psychology
Revision Booklet
AS Level
A Brief History Of Psychology
The word psychology originates from 2 Greek words:
Psyche meaning soul/mind (there was no distinction between the two)
Logos meaning study of.
The most common explanation of what psychology is was put forward by
Atkinson et al (1991). He suggested that psychology is ‘The scientific study
of behaviour and mental processes.’
Psychology was born out of Philosophy. In ancient Greece two forms of
philosophy were invented:
Empiricism- Concerned with observation and experience
Logical Deductive Methods- Concerned with gaining knowledge by
reasoned thinking.
1530
The word psychology first used by a German theologian called Philipp
Melanchton.
17th Century
Hobbes maintained that all impressions originated from sensory experience.
Lock described the infant mind as a blank slate and ideas and images
entered the mind through perception.
Descartes influenced psychology by maintaining that the mind and the body
were separate entities.
19th Century
Weber, Muller, Fechner and Helmholtz began using experimental methods
to study sensory experience and reaction times.
In 1879 Wundt set up an experimental lab, he attempted to study the
structure of the mind through a process called introspection.
(See next section)
20th Century
A number of different schools of psychology developed.
Psychodynamic – Freud, Jung and Erickson
Behaviourism – Watson, Pavlov, Skinner
Cognitive – The Gestalt psychologists
Humanistic – Rogers and Maslow
The Beginning of Modern Psychology
The Key Influences
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
Structuralism
Wundt was a pioneer in the late 1870’s, inspired by the work of Weber,
Fechner and Helmholtz he adapted scientific methods to study
psychology.
In 1879 he opened the first psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany. This event
heralded the beginning of psychology, as a science in it’s own right. Prior to
this it was a branch of philosophy.
Introspection
Wundt claimed that the only person who can study experience is the person
that is having the experience. The method must involve introspection
(internal perception). He trained his psychologists to report on their own
mental processes as they experience an object or event, by following the 4
rules below.
1. Observers must be able to determine when a process is to be
introduced.
2. Observers must be in a state of readiness.
3. It must be possible to repeat the observation.
4. Experimental conditions must be capable of variation.
Wundt tested various elements of experience by stimulating the senses. He
categorised 4 senses.
 Visual
 Auditory
 Tactile
 Taste and Olfactory
Criticisms of Structuralism
 Self-report cannot be trusted because many people have disturbed
minds.
 Much behaviour is not consciously driven (so not measurable)
 Not generalisable as it is based on ideographic analysis.
Even though his ideas and methods have not stood the test of time much
progress was made as a result of people challenging his ideas. Without
Wundt we psychology may not be a science.
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
Functionalism
Functionalists were concerned with the purposes or functions of mental
processes.
Darwin’s main theory was that of natural selection. He claims that
organisms that are most suited to their environment survive and those that
are not are eliminated. He proved that this accounted for the variations in
species from the same origin. All variability is inherited from parents.
Darwin talked of a continuous struggle that was happening in nature.
Survival must be the driving force in nature.
Another of Darwin’s theories of interest to psychologists was that of humans
developing from lower order mammals such as apes. This emphasised the
similarities between animal and human processes. Darwin paved the
way for animal research being generalised to humans.
The Influence of Darwin on Psychology
 The similarity between human and animal functioning led scientists to
investigate animal mental functioning. Which introduced a new
subject into the psych lab- Animal psychology.
 Psychology became more concerned with the effect of the
environment.
 Darwin’s theory broadened psychological methodology by
introducing animal observation. This had never been done before.
 Because of the differences in species identified by Darwin,
psychologists began to study individual differences.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Psychoanalysis
He started to develop his theory around 1900. Freud was interested in the
relationship between childhood development and aspects of adult
functioning. For him, the unconscious mind is central, and he believed hat
much of our behaviour is influenced by material deep in our unconscious.
Freud developed the therapy of psychoanalysis. The theory and approach
was based on information provided by patients who came to see him.
Freud’s theory is known as a very grand theory as it covers a lot of different
aspects of human experience and behaviour. He has something to say about
personality, aggression, moral behaviour, mental disorders, memory – the
list is virtually endless. The key influence is that the approach covers such
an extensive range of areas, and therefore is still talked about today.
(See Psychodynamic approach later on)
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
Humanism
Rogers created the third force in psychology. He introduced the humanistic
approach as a direct response to the ideas of Skinner and Freud. He thought
that Freud’s ideas on human nature were very pessimistic, with people being
seen as at the mercy of unconscious forces over which they have no control,
and with there developmental pathway already laid down after childhood.
Skinner’s belief that all behaviour was determined by environmental events
also seemed both pessimistic and mechanistic.
In contrast to these two theories, he suggested that people have the capacity
to think about their lives, decide how they would like to develop, and are
capable of making positive changes. Development arises from choices made
by the individual. The focus of the psychologist should therefore be on
the individual and his or her experiences.
The main influence is that Rogers challenged the big guns of the time
(Freud, Skinner) with a more person centred approach. Focussing on
the conscious individual. (See humanistic approach later on)
Psychology as a science
Psychology is often described as the science of mind and behaviour,
For something to be defined as a science it has to have
 A definable subject matter
 Hypothesis testing
 Objectivity
Some would say that psychology was no more that common sense.
Psychology vs. Common sense
It may seem questionable whether psychology has much to tell us which is
not just a matter of common sense. After all, we all observe people and draw
conclusions about what people are like from what we see. We seem to
understand people quite well without the aid of psychology.
The difference being that psychology can be thought of as organised
common sense. It can provide evidence of common sense theories, and can
take a wider perspective than the individual. Also the findings of
psychologists can contradict common sense ideas. For example common
sense would say, if you punish someone they would not do it again. We
know this in spite of prisons being full of reoffenders.
Common sense is Subjective
 Opinion is based on values, attitudes, feelings and interpretation.
Scientific approach is Objective
 It relies on a collection of data without feelings, values or attitudes
being involved.
 From this there will be a formulation of Hypotheses
Formal Psychology
 Professional
 Scientific
Informal Psychology
Amateur
Non scientific
The Psychodynamic Approach
Key Figures- Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung
Main assumptions All psychology is pre-determined
 The unconscious plays a very important role in motivating our
behaviour
 Childhood plays an important role in determining adult behaviour
Psychological determinism- all behaviour is motivated, and the reasons we
behave in certain ways are unconscious.
The unconscious- this was not a new idea, but before Freud, it was looked
at as a dumping ground for experiences that were no longer important. Freud
saw the unconscious as an active force, motivating much of our behaviour.
He included this in his concept of the structure of the mind.
Childhood- Freud saw instinctual needs such as hunger, thirst and sex as
being very important sources of motivation; at the same time; however, he
thought that the social environment, which constrains the gratification of
these instincts, was crucial to a child’s development.
The structure of the mind
Freud separated the mind into 3 areas:
 The ID- The id is present at birth. It is the seat of our instincts, and is
unconscious. It operates on the pleasure principle, in that it tries to
get immediate gratification and to avoid pain. It is the source of
psychic energy, the libido.
 EGO- This develops in childhood out of the id, as children learn that
immediate gratification is not always possible and that pain cannot
always be avoided. The ego works on the reality principle. It decides
what actions are appropriate, and which id impulses will be satisfied
and how. The ego tries to balance the demands of the id, the realities
of life, and the demands of the superego. Many ego processes are
conscious, but some are preconscious and others, especially the ego
defences we shall come to later, are unconscious.
 Superego-This consists of the values and morals of the child, and
develops around the age of five. It is the child’s conscience and ego
ideal, a model of what the child would be like to be.
The forces of the superego are often in conflict with the id. The ego has the
job of balancing the two forces. This is not always possible. When conflict
arises the mind uses defence mechanisms to avoid anxiety and pain.
Defence Mechanisms
Displacement- When we can’t express our feelings at the intended target, we
substitute objects on which feelings can be taken out.
Denial- When something is so painful it is not consciously acknowledged.
(I.e. life threatening illness is not accepted)
Repression- This is motivated forgetting, we forget things that are too
painful to remember.
Regression- Involves a symbolic return to an earlier stage of development,
for example, sucking your thumb to comfort yourself.
Psychosexual development
This is how Freud described childhood development. Everyone goes through
these stages in the same order, and their experience of them is crucial not
only in childhood but in adulthood. Interest is focussed on pleasure gained
from particular areas.
Oral Stage- Birth to 1 year
Source of pleasure is the mouth.
Anal Stage- 1 year to 3 years
Source of pleasure is from the expulsion and retention of faeces
Phallic Stage- 3 years to 5 years
Source of pleasure centres on the genitals
This is where the Oedipus and Electra complex can arise.
Latency Stage- 5 years to Puberty
Children turn aside from their sexuality and focus on social and intellectual
development.
Genital Stage- Puberty onwards
Recognisably adult sexual desires become apparent and mature feelings of
love come about.
If the child experiences frustration or gratification during any of these stages
Fixation can occur, this can show itself in adult life. E.g. anal stage fixation
can lead to being an anally retentive person, unusually tidy and organised.
Critical Evaluation
 Freud’s theories inspired more research and allowed psychology to
move on.
 Freud has got evidence that psychoanalysis works as a therapy (little
Hans case study)
 Freud only worked from case study this lacks experimental validity
and so cannot be replicated or proved under scientific conditions.
 It could be argued that Freud looked to prove his own theory because
he was the only person performing the research. This termed
experimenter bias.
 Some psychologists such as Rogers would argue that psychological
predetermination is a little cold. It doesn’t give the person control over
own actions. Human beings are always at the mercy of the past.
 Freud was not objective so the research cannot be generalised.
The Behaviourist Approach
Key Figures- John Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B.F.Skinner
Main Assumptions Psychology is viewed, as an objective natural science therefore the
only factor worth studying is measurable observable behaviour.
 There is no distinction between animals and humans therefore animals
can be tested on and the results generalised to humans.
 All behaviour can be learned through conditioning.
 Emphasis on how environmental factors affect behaviour.
Classical Conditioning
This was first mentioned in 1927 by the Russian physiologist Pavlov; he
was studying the salivatory reactions in dogs.
He was mainly interested in the process of stimulus and response.
Experimentation with the dog led to the discovery of classical conditioning.
Pavlov’s Dog Experiment
Stage 1
Before learning
Stage 2
During Learning
Stage 3
After Learning
Food
Unconditioned stimulus
Bell Conditioned stimulus
Food UCS
Bell
Conditioned Stimulus
Salivation
Unconditioned Response
Salivation
Unconditioned Response
Salivation
Conditioned Response
Pavlov found that the dog learned an association between the bell and
the food. Therefore when the bell rang in stage three the dog assumed
food was on the way and salivation was induced.
Watson’s Little Albert Case Study
Watson and Raynor conditioned a fear in a young baby using classical
conditioning. Albert was a placid baby and he had a pet white rat that he was
very fond of, whenever he played with the rat Watson made a loud noise
behind the child. This produced a fear reaction (crying). This process was
repeated over and over until Albert associated the fear response with the rat.
Operant Conditioning
According to operant conditioning we learn because of the consequences of
our actions, if we do something that brings pleasant consequences then we
are more likely to do it again. On the other hand if we do something that
brings about unpleasant consequences then we are less likely to do it again.
Thorndike (1874-1949) began studying reinforcement with a puzzle box for
cats. He found that if the cat was reinforced then it was quicker to escape.
This research was continued by Skinner (1904-1990), who devised the
Skinner box. An animal would show typical behaviour in that it tried to
escape. Whilst escaping it may accidentally push a lever and would be
rewarded with a pellet of food. This action would bring about positive
reinforcement.
3 Types of consequences for behaviour Positive reinforcement- strengthens behaviour by presenting
something pleasurable as a reward e.g. food.
 Negative reinforcement- strengthens behaviour that avoids
something unpleasant (avoidance learning)
 Punishment – weakens behaviour by presenting something
unpleasant e.g. electric shock.
Differences between classical and operant conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Deals with involuntary behaviour
Deals with voluntary behaviour.
Reinforcement strengthens
conditioned response but is neutralit works whether the human/animal
likes it or not.
Reinforcement strengthens the
conditioned response and is either
positive or negative.
The stimulus comes before the
conditioned response in each case.
Reinforcement is always given after
the voluntary behaviour has been
performed- and either strengthens or
weakens behaviour.
A stimulus can only ever trigger one
type of behaviour.
A reinforcer can be used to
strengthen many different types of
behaviour using different behaviour
shaping techniques.
Shows generalisation,
discrimination, extinction and
spontaneous recovery.
Same as classical conditioning.
Relies on the linking or association
of stimuli and response.
Same as classical conditioning.
Critical evaluation
 Highly experimental, research can be generalised, as it is free from
bias.
 The approach explains a lot of aspects of human behaviour using only
a few basic principles.
 Behaviourism has produced many practical applications, especially in
the treatment of phobias.
 Behaviourism is reductionist (it reduces very complex human
behaviour to a simple set of stimulus-response links)
 Behaviourism is deterministic; we are completely at the mercy of our
environment. (Contrast with humanism)
 Behaviourism ignores mental processes assuming all behaviour is
down to experience. (Contrast with cognitive)
 It can be seen as too scientific, it de-humanises the subject and the
results can sometimes only demonstrate artificial rather than natural
learning.
The Humanistic Approach
Key Figures- Carl Rogers
Main Assumptions The main point of importance is the experiences of the being human.
With the focus on subjective experiences of the world.
 It is a holistic approach. Meaning we should look at the person as a
whole and not as a series of psychological functions and processes.
 We all have Personal agency. In most situations we are aware of
having a choice. The approach centres on personal growth.
The personal growth is identified in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs shown
below. He suggested there is a range of human needs and these had to be
satisfied before progression can take place.
Humanistic psychology is considered the third force in psychology as it
developed in direct competition with previous approaches. Humanists
question the pessimistic view that humans are at the mercy of the
environment claiming that we all have choices and as humans we are
consciously aware of them. Humanists disagree with structured scientific
testing arguing that the experience of being human is the important measure.
Like Freud humanistic psychologists use case studies and introspective
data.
Client Centred Therapy
Carl Rogers developed this therapy; this is a talking therapy and is nondirective, as the therapist does not suggest how the client may wish to
change, but by listening an mirroring back what the client tells them, helps
them to explore these possibilities for themselves, and decide what kinds of
changes they would like to make.
Rogers believed that people are generally good, and had a generally
optimistic view of human nature, he was aware that we all have the capacity
for more negative behaviour. However he believed in the recognition of
choice. These choices depend on social conditioning. The presence of social
conditioning suggests that choices are not entirely free. Negative elements
brought about by social conditioning cause people to become neurotic and
what Rogers calls incongruent, in that the self that has developed and is
shown in behaviour is not the true self.
Rogers believed that if a child only receives conditional positive regard
(behaviour is praised according to expectations of others) self esteem is
affected and there is conflict between the child’s idea of self-concept and
ideal self. Rather unconditional positive regard should be present (parents
love their child regardless of behaviour) in order for the ideal self to be
reached.
If anxiety or depression is present it must be due to a conflict between selfconcept and ideal self. Through CCT Roger’s claimed that this conflict can
be resolved by helping the client to recognise choice and to make those
changes.
Critical Evaluation (Add this to evaluation on Humanism Sheet)
 Humanistic Psychology has been criticised for overemphasising the
possibilities for change. It downplays social and cultural constraints
that affect everyone’s behaviour.
The Cognitive Approach
Key players- Any memory, perception or attention psychologist
Main Assumptions People are like machines (parallels can be drawn between computer
processors and the brain).
 All memory processes can and should be investigated scientifically.
 Models of psychological functions can be proposed and tested by
observable behaviour and conscious report.
 Humans are not passive responders to their environment, there has to
be some process between stimulus and response.
The Information Processing Approach
The development of the computer in the 50’s and 60’s allowed psychologists
a metaphor to which they could compare human mental processes.
The computer codes info, stores info, uses info and then produces and
output. Cog psychologists adopted this as a model of how human thought
worked.
E.G.
Eye receives visual info and codes that info into neural activity, which is
fed back to the brain in an area called the visual cortex. The info can be
used by other parts of the brain that relates to memory, perception and
attention. The output might be what you see on a printed page.
Critical Evaluation
 The approach is over simplistic; it ignores the complexity of human
function.
 Lacks ecological validity.
 It can be regarded, as a cold approach humans are not really machines.
It ignores biology.
 Cog psychologists are criticised for tending to ignore the physical and
social environment in which we live.
 The focus of thinking may be regarded as remote and not take account
of family situations, employment, social conditions and the experience
of the person. (Contrast with Freud and Rogers)
 The approach has been very successful in generalising. The approach
is nomothetic not ideographic.
 Investigates many areas that are ignored by behaviourism, using more
rigorous scientific methods than psychoanalysis and humanism.
Finally read the computer vs. the human brain sheet on the back of your
cognitive handout.
Summarising Perspectives
For revision draw up a table for the 4 perspectives stating What are the aims
 Their view of what people are like
 The extent of science in the approach
 The extent to which they see people as having control of their lives
(free will) or being at the mercy of forces beyond their control
(determinism).
 What do they aim to explain, e.g. behaviour
 Possible applications
 Strengths
 Criticisms
The easiest way to get AO2 marks is to compare the approaches.
Now see the past paper questions.