Download Bio 103 Lecture - Exam #2 - Study Guide - Summ

Bio 103 Section A02 Summer 2003
Exam #2 Study Guide
Dr. Largen
Chapter 4 - Cell Structure
Microscopes provide windows to the world of the cell
• compare light versus electron microscopes
§ illumination type
§ focus mechanism
§ relative resolving power
• subtypes of each category of microscope
§ know type of image produced by each subtype
Cell sizes vary with their function
§ cell size and shape are related to function
§ an example of a very small cell and of a very large cell
Natural laws limit cell size
§ reasons for upper limits to cell size
§ reasons for lower limits to cell size
§ relationship between the surface-area-to-volume ratio and changes in cell size
§ advantages to small cell size
Prokaryotic cells are small and structurally simple
§ general characteristics of prokaryotic cells
§ compare characteristics of prokaryotic versus eukaryotic cells
§ structure and components of a prokaryotic cell
Eukaryotic cells are partitioned into functional compartments
§ major components of an animal cells
§ major components of a plant cells
The nucleus is the cell’s genetic control center
§ role of the nucleus in cells
§ names and functions of components of nucleus, including nuclear envelope
§ is an organelle of endomembrane ysytem
Overview: Many cell organelles are related through the endomembrane system
§ define endomembrane system
§ list organelles that are part of endomembrane system
§ characteristic shared by all members of endomembrane system
Rough endoplasmic reticulum makes membrane and proteins
§ components that make up RER
§ location of RER in cell
§ structure of RER
§ relationship between RER and nuclear envelope
§ functions of RER
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relationship between RER and transport vesicles
relationship between RER and glycoproteins
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum has a variety of functions
§ components that make up SER
§ location of SER in cell
§ structure of SER
§ relationship between SER and RER
§ functions of SER and examples of cell types that carry out that function
§ functions vary from cell type to cell type
§ enzymes responsible for detoxification are located in membrane of SER
The Golgi apparatus finishes, sorts, and ships cell products
§ components that make up the Golgi
§ location of Golgi in cell
§ structure of Golgi
§ relationship between Golgi and ER
§ relationship between Golgi and transport vesicles
§ relationship between Golgi and the plasma membrane
§ the three “areas” of the Golgi
§ functions of the Golgi
Lysosomes digest the cell’s food and wastes
§ components that make up lysosomes
§ location of lysosomes in cells
§ strucutre on lysosome
§ functions of lysosomes and examples
§ how are lysosomes produced
§ what do lysosomes contains
§ describe movement of a lysosome from formation until carrying out its task
Vacuoles function in the general maintenance of the cell
§ components that make up the vacuoles
§ location of vacuoles in cell
§ structure of vacuoles
§ functions of vacuoles
§ example from plant cell and protist cell
A review of the endomembrane system
§ relationships among major organelles of the endomembrane system
§ what are structural similarities
§ which are physically connected
§ which are not physically connected
§ what are functional similarities
§ which are related functionally
§ which are not related functionally
§ describe the movement of a secretory protein from its manufacture in the ribosome of
RER to its departure from the cell
§ what is the role of transport vesicles
Chloroplasts convert solar energy to chemical energy
§ what types of cells have chloroplasts (plants vs. animals)
§ how many chloroplasts does a cell have
§ structure of chloroplast
§ parts & components of chloroplasts
§ energy process that takes place in chloroplasts
§ where in chloroplast does photosynthesis take place
§ do chloroplasts carryout cellular respiration
§ do cells with chloroplasts also have mitochondria
Mitochondria harvest chemical energy from food
§ what types of cells have mitochondria (plants vs. animals)
§ how many mitochondria does a cell have
§ structure of mitochondria
§ parts & components of mitochondria
§ energy process that takes place in mitochondria
§ where in mitochondria does cellular respiration take place
§ do mitochondria carryout photosynthesis
§ do cells with mitochondria also have chloroplasts
§ what structure inside the mitochondria increase surface area available for reactions
Cell's internal structure helps organize its structure and activities
§ functions of cytoskeleton
§ three main kinds of fibers that make up the cytoskeleton
§ structure, components, functions of each of the three types of fibers
Chapter 5 - The Working Cell
Energy is the capacity to perform work
• definition of energy
• definition of potential energy
• definition of kinetic energy
• understand difference between potential and kinetic energy
• definition of chemical energy
• how is energy stored in molecules
• definition of heat
Two laws govern energy conversion
• how does an organism tap into chemical energy
• definition of thermodynamics
• know the first law of thermodynamics
• know the second law of thermodynamics
• definition of entropy
• how does entropy relate to heat
Chemical reactions either store or release energy
• definition of endergonic reaction
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definition of exergonic reaction
understand the relationship between the amount of energy in the reactants and products for
endergonic and exergonic reactions
where does energy released in an exergonic reaction go
where does energy input into an endergonic reaction come from
what type of reaction is cellular respiration
ATP shuttles chemical energy within the cell
• what is energy coupling
• what molecule powers nearly all forms of cellular work
• is the hydrolysis of ATP an exergonic or endergonic reaction
• definition of phosphoprylation
• understand relationship between hydrolysis of ATP and phosphorylation
• which has more potential energy; ATP or ADP
• which has more potential energy; a particular protein or that same protein after it has been
phosphorylated
• does ATP become ADP + P by a hydrolysis or dehydration synthesis reaction
• does ADP + P become ATP by a hydrolysis or dehydration synthesis reaction
• does the hydrolysis of ATP require an input of energy or result in a release of energy
• does the dehydration synthesis of ADP + P to ATP require an input of energy or result in a
release of energy
• how many phosphate groups are in ATP
• how many phosphate groups are in ADP
• what is the ATP cycle
• understand how ATP powers cellular work
Enzymes speed up the cell's chemical reactions by lowering energy barriers
• definition of energy of activation
• what is meant by an energy barrier
• what is an enzyme
• are all enzymes proteins
• do enzymes raise or lower the energy barrier
• what effect does an enzyme have on the magnitude of the energy of activation
• can an enzyme change an endergonic reaction into an exergonic reaction
• does an enzyme add energy to a reaction it catalyzes
• what does it mean to catalyze a reaction
• does an enzyme get used up when it catalyzes a reaction
• does an enzyme undergo an permanent change when it catalyzes a reaction
A specific enzyme catalyzes each cellular reaction
• can every enzyme catalyze every reaction
• is an enzyme's unique three dimensional shape important to its function
• what is the name of a chemical reactant upon which an enzyme acts
• are enzymes specific
• what is the name of the area on the enzyme molecule that actually binds with the substrate
• can many different types of substrate bind to the active site of one particular enzyme
• understand how an enzyme works
The cellular environment affects enzyme activity
• can the activity of an enzyme be affected by its environment
• what environmental factors can affect an enzyme's activity
• how do temperature, pH and salinity affect the activity of enzymes
• do some enzymes require the assistance of non-protein helper molecules
• do all enzymes require the assistance of non-protein helper molecules
• what is the term for non-protein helper molecules that assist some enzymes
• what term is used to describe non-protein helper molecules that are inorganic substances
• what term is used to describe non-protein helper molecules that are organic molecules
Enzyme inhibitors block enzyme action
• are there chemicals that can interfere with the activity of an enzyme
• what is the general term for chemicals that can interfere with the activity of an enzyme
• how does a competitive inhibitor interfere with the activity of an enzyme
• how does a noncompetitive inhibitor interfere with the activity of an enzyme
• understand the difference between a competitive and noncompetitive inhibitor
Specific proteins facilitate diffusion across membranes
• what is the term for protein molecules imbedded in membrane that assist with the movement
of substances across the membrane
• can all substances diffuse easily across membranes
• definition of transport protein
• definition of facilitated diffusion
• does a substances move up or down its concentration gradient in facilitated diffusion
• does facilitated diffusion require an input of energy
• is facilitated diffusion an example of active or passive transport
• how do transport proteins participate in facilitated diffusion
Cells expend energy for active transport
• definition of active transport
• does active transport move substances up or down their concentration gradient
• what molecule usually provides the energy for active transport
• how do active transport systems couple the passage of two solutes across a membrane,
each against its concentration gradient
• does active transport involve transport proteins
Exocytosis and endocytosis transport large molecules
• understand the process of bulk transport or molecules into and out of the cell
• definition of exocytosis
• definition of endocytosis
• what role do membrane-bound vesicles play in exo- and endocytosis
• definition of phagocytosis
• definition of pinocytosis
• definition of receptor-mediated endocytosis
• understand the degree of specificity of endocytosis, exocytosis and receptor-mediated
endocytosis
Chapter 6 - Cellular Respiration
Breathing supplies oxygen to our cells and removes carbon dioxide
• are respiratory respiration (breathing) the same thing as cellular respiration
• how is your breathing related to your cellular respiration
Cellular respiration banks energy in ATP molecules
• know the summary equation for cellular respiration
• what starting food molecule is usually used to study cellular respiration
• what are the reactants for the cellular respiration reaction
• what are the products for the cellular respiration reaction
• can cellular respiration harvest all the energy from glucose in a form that is usable to the cell
• does the full process of cellular respiration require oxygen
• definition of cellular respiration
• definition of aerobic
• definition of anaerobic
• comparison of the efficiency of aerobic cellular respiration of glucose as compared to a yeast
cell harvesting energy from glucose under anaerobic conditions
Cells tap energy from electrons transferred from organic fuels to oxygen
• where in a molecule is the energy stored that a cell harvests
• does cellular respiration dismantle glucose all at once or in a series of small steps
• understand how respiration works by shuttling electrons through a series of energy-releasing
reactions
• in this process, do electrons start out in molecules that have more energy and end up in
molecules that have less energy or visa versa
• the energy released by dismantling glucose ultimately ends up in what energy-storage
molecule
• what molecule serves as the ultimate recipient or acceptor of electrons in cellular respiration
Hydrogen carriers such as NAD + shuttle electrons in redox reactions
• definition of oxidation-reduction reaction
• definition of redox reaction
• understand that the movement of electrons from one molecule to another is a redox reaction
• is oxidation the gain or loss of electrons from a substance
• is reduction the gain or loss of electrons from a substance
• why do oxidation and reduction always go together
• does the transfer of an electron require both a donor and an acceptor for that electron
• what are two key players in the oxidation of organic molecules in cellular respiration
• how many hydrogen atoms are removed by dehydrogenase and NAD+ and how many
protons and electrons does this involve
• what does NAD+ become after accepting electrons
• is NADH considered a hydrogen carrier, and if so, why
• do the electrons added to NAD+ to make NADH represent energy that the cell has harvested
and can eventually use
Redox reactions release energy when electrons "fall" from a hydrogen carrier to oxygen
• is glucose considered a source of electrons
• what two molecules work together to withdraw electrons from glucose
• does NADH convey electrons from glucose to other molecules in the cell
• what is the term used to describe the type of molecule to which NADH delivers its electron
load
• what do we call the type of reaction that occurs when NADH gives up electrons and the
electron carrier gains electrons
• definition of electron carrier
• what is meant by an electron cascade
• what is the electron transport chain
• what happens to the electrons delivered by NADH to the electron carriers
• in the electron cascade, are electrons falling down an energy hill or moving up an energy hill
• what keeps electrons moving along the electron cascade or electron transport chain
• starting at the top of the electron cascade or electron transport chain and working towards
the bottom, how would characterize the electron affinity of each electron carrier along the
way
• at what point or points along the electron transport chain is energy released
• definition of electron transport chain
• what is the last molecule in the electron transport chain to accept electrons
• where are the molecules that carryout the electron transport chain located
• the energy released along the electron transport chain is used to make which energy storage
molecule
Two mechanisms generate ATP
• definition of chemiosmotic phosphorylation
• definition of substrate-level phosphorylation
• what are the two mechanisms by which cells generate ATP
• for chemiosmotic phosphorylation
• do concentration gradients store potential energy
• what components are required for chemiosmotic phosphorylation
• how is the hydrogen ion concentration gradient created
• is energy required to create the hydrogen ion concentration gradient
• what is the source of the energy required to create the hydrogen ion concentration
gradient
• is active transport employed to create the hydrogen ion concentration gradient
• definition of ATP synthase
• what enzyme catalyzed the reaction that creates ATP from ADP + P
• what is the source of the energy that powers the reaction in which ATP synthase makes
ATP
• do hydrogen ions diffuse back across the membrane via passive or active transport
• is the diffusion of the hydrogen ions back across the membrane an example of facilitated
diffusion and why
• in which part of the cell does chemiosmotic phosphorylation take place
• in which part of the mitochondria does chemiosmotic phosphorylation take place
• do hydrogen ions that are pumped across the membrane end up in the intermembrane
space of the mitochondria
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does chemiosmotic phosphorylation account for a small or large percent of ATP
production
for substrate-level phosphorylation
• does substrate-level phosphorylation involve a membrane
• are the substrates in substrate-level phosphorylation produced as intermediaries in the
cellular respiration process
• does substrate-level phosphorylation account for a large or small percentage of ATP
production
• is an enzyme required for substrate-level phosphorylation
• does substrate-level phosphorylation add or remove a phosphate from ADP
Overview: Respiration occurs in three main stages
• is cellular respiration a continuous process or does it stop in between each of the stages
• what are the three stages of cellular respiration
• which of the three stages of cellular respiration are endergonic and which are exergonic
• in which part of the cell does glycolysis take place
• in which part of the cell do the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain and chemiosmosis
take place
Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvic acid
• does glycolysis split the glucose molecule
• is glycolysis a universal energy-harvesting process of life
• in general, what happens in the preparatory phase of glycolysis
• in general, what happens in the energy payoff phase of glycolysis
• how many molecules of pyruvic acid are produced by glycolysis for each molecule of glucose
that is processed
• what molecule does glycolysis begin with
• what molecule does glycolysis end with
• is energy required during the preparatory phase
• is energy required during the energy payoff phase
• is ATP "spent" during glycolysis in order to make more ATP
• what term is given to the organic molecules produced during the various steps of glycolysis
• for each glucose molecule processed, what are the net molecular products of glycolysis
• which of the two phosphorylation processes are used during glycolysis to produce ATP
Pyruvic acid is chemically groomed for the Krebs cycle
• to where does the pyruvic acid diffuse after its production in the cytoplasm by glycolysis
• does pyruvic acid itself enter the Krebs cycle
• to what molecule is pyruvic acid converted
The Krebs cycle completes the oxidation of organic fuel, generating many NADH and
FADH2 molecules
• what happens to the coenzyme A portion of acetyl coenzyme A prior to entering the Krebs
cycle
• what is the starting molecule of the Krebs cycle
• what is the ending molecule of the Krebs cycle
• what waster product is produced during the Krebs cycle
• are intermediates created during the Krebs cycle
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is ATP produced during the Krebs cycle
by which of the two phosphorylation processes is ATP produced during the Krebs cycle
for each molecule of glucose, how many ATP, NADH and FADH2 molecules are produced
how many turns of the Krebs cycle does it take to process one molecule of glucose
in which part of the cell does the Krebs cycle take place
Chemiosmosis powers most ATP production
• make sure to understand this process as detailed in section 6.7
• in which part of the cell do the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis take place
• in which part of the mitochondrion do the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis take
place
• electrons are delivered to the "top" of the electron transport chain by which molecule
• what is the source of the NADH that delivers electrons to the top of the electron transport
chain
• the energy released during the electron transport chain fuels what process
• what ion is actively pumped across the membrane to create a concentration gradient
• is the hydrogen ion concentration gradient created by an active or passive transport process
• most of the carrier molecules of the electron transport chain reside in what type of molecules
• what is the final electron acceptor of the electron transport chain
• what waste product or by-product of cellular respiration is produced at the end of the electron
transport chain
• hydrogen ions are pumped from what part of the mitochondrion, across what part of the
mitochondrion and into what part of the mitochondrion to create the concentration gradient
• by which of the two types of phosphorylation is ATP produced in this final stage of cellular
respiration
• what enzyme catalyzes the reaction to make ATP in this process
• by what process do the hydrogen ions make the return trip back across the mitochondria
membrane
• is an input of energy required to get the hydrogen ions back across the membrane
Certain poisons interrupt critical events in cellular respiration
• know the three categories of poisons that act by interrupting critical events in cellular
respiration and which event they interrupt
Review: Each molecule of glucose yields many molecules of ATP
• know the three stages of cellular respiration and the order in which they occur
• know where in the cell each stage occurs
• know where in the mitochondria each stage occurs
• know starting and ending molecule or material for each stage
• know net number of ATP molecules produced by each stage
• know which phosphorylation process is used in each stage to produce ATP
• know net number of ATP molecules produced per molecule of glucose processed by cellular
respiration
• do plants carryout cellular respiration or just animals or both
• know the reactants and products for cellular respiration
• know which energy rich molecules are produced by each stage
• know the source of the NADH that delivers electrons to the electron transport chain
Fermentation is an anaerobic alternative to aerobic respiration
• can cells produce ATP in the absence of oxygen
• by what process can a cell produce ATP in the absence of oxygen
• what molecule does a cell need to constantly replenish in order to produce ATP in the
absence of oxygen
• does fermentation occur in aerobic or anaerobic conditions
• what stage of cellular respiration can produce ATP in the absence of oxygen
• what process does a cell use to replenish its supply of NAD+
• definition of alcoholic fermentation
• definition of lactic acid fermentation
• what waste product(s) are produced in alcoholic fermentation
• what waste product(s) are produced in lactic acid fermentation
• is the production of ATP by fermentation as efficient as aerobic cellular respiration in
harvesting energy from glucose