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Renaissance
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) – Italian
philosopher who was the greatest figure in the
Scholastic movement. Advocated an Aristotelian
philosophy that faith and reason were gifts from
God and should be used by man.
Leo X (1475-1521) - Pope Leo X was responsible
for the political rise of the papacy in Europe.
Born Giovanni de’Medici, his father was
Lorenzo the Magnificent. He was made cardinal
at 13 and because of the support of Pope Julius
II rose through the papal ranks. He was pope
during the early Reformation and
excommunicated Martin Luther. What
surprising is that he was never ordained a priest.
Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) - Italian poet wrote
Inferno and Divine Comedy (1321), which
demonstrated the powerful influence of the
church on education and literature. Wrote in
the vernacular.
Boccaccio (1313-1375) - Giovanni Boccaccio was
one of the first writers of the early Renaissance,
famous for his prose. Wrote the Decameron a
series of 100 short stories, which tell about
ambitious merchants, portrays a sensual, and
worldly society in the time of the Black Death
(1348).
Botticelli (1444?-1510) - One of the leading
painters of the Florentine Renaissance,
developed a highly personal style. He was one of
the many artists sponspored by the Medici
family. His most famous work was The Birth of
Venus (1482).
Brunelleschi (1377-1446) - Italian architect and
sculptor of the early Renaissance, celebrated for
designing the dome of the cathedral of Florence.
His style was anti-Gothic, preferring instead to
use domes to create space. He also designed the
Foundling Hospital in Florence.
Michalangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) - The
greatest artist of the High Renaissance. Worked
in Rome and painted the Sistine Chapel for Pope
Julius II. Sculpted the statue of David.
Castiglione (1478-1529) - Wrote The Courtier,
which was about education and manners and
had a great influence. It said that an upper class,
educated man should know many academic
subjects and should be trained in music, dance,
and art.
Charles V (r. 1519-1556) - Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V was perhaps, the most powerful man
in Europe during the first part of the sixteenth
century. He was king of Spain, but also ruled
the vast Habsburg empire, which included the
Netherlands, Austria, much of Italy, Burgundy,
and Spain’s possessions in the New World. He
was considered the “universal monarch” and
spent much of his reign defending Catholicism.
Isabella d’Este (1475-1539) - Isabella was
arguably the most powerful and influential
woman of the Renaissance period. She learned
the humanist languages of Greek and Latin and
excelled in music. She even ruled Mantua when
her husband was captured in battle.
Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519) - Leonardo
dominated the Renaissance like no other person.
His paintings, sculptures, engineering feats, and
biological research changed the course of
history. He was continually looking for patrons
and spent much of his life traveling. His greatest
works include the Last Supper and the Mona
Lisa.
Lorenzo de Medici (r. 1469-1492) - The Medici’s
were a great banking family in Florence in the
15th century. “Il Magnifico” ruled the
government of Florence (1469-1492) from behind
the scene. During his tenure Florence witnessed
the height of her prestige and beauty.
Lucrezia Borgia (1480-1519) - Lucrezia was the
daughter of Pope Alexander VI, who used his
daughter to gain political power. She was one of
the most notable women during the Renaissance.
Miguel De Cervantes (1547-1616) - Spanish
writer. Wrote Don Quixote.
Donatello (1386-1466) - Sculptor of the early
Renaissance who studied under Ghiberti and
Brunelleschi. Probably exerted greatest influence
of any Florentine artist before Michelangelo. He
was sponsored by the Medici family of Florence.
His most important statue was the David, a
freestanding nude. His work expressed an
appreciation of the incredible variety of human
nature.
Erasmus (1466?-1536) - Dutch Humanist who
wanted to reform the Catholic Church. He
stressed the importance of religious education.
Wrote Praise of Folly. Friends with Thomas
More and a critic of Martin Luther.
Jacob Fugger - Headed leading banking, and
trading house in l6th century Europe.
Giotto (1276?-1337?) - Florentine painter who
led the way in the use of realism and depth. His
techniques for showing perspective were copied
by many of the Renaissance artists.
Pope Julius II (r.1503-1513) - Very militaristic
pope, who was responsible for some of the
greatest art found in the Vatican. Tore down the
old Saint Peter’s Basilica and began work on the
present structure in 1506. He commissioned
Michelangelo to paint the Sistine Chapel.
Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) - Wrote The
Prince (1513), the first modern manual of
politics. It was a very secular text based on
reality and practical politics. Believed the end
justifies the means. His model was Cesare
Borgia.
Montaigne (1533-1592) – French author who was
the finest representative of early modern
skepticism. Created a new genre, the essay.
Published Essays in 1580.
Sir Thomas More (1478-1535) - Englishman,
lawyer, politician, Chancellor for Henry VIII.
Wrote Utopia, which presented a revolutionary
view of society in which greed did not exist.
Would not acknowledge Henry’s right to get a
divorce and was beheaded.
Johann Gutenberg (1397?-1468) - Gutenberg is
credited with the invention of the printing press
in Germany about 1450. The first book printed
was the Gutenberg Bible. With the development
of the press printed items were cheap to produce
and readily available which increased the
demand for education.
Catherine de’Medici (1519-1589) - Queen of
France who had three sons who all became kings
of France. Catherine was married to Henry I,
who was killed in a jousting match in 1559. She
dominated French politics for almost fifty years,
but especially during the reign of her sons.
Reformation and Religious wars
John Calvin (1509-1564) - Theological writings
profoundly influenced religious thoughts of
Europeans. Wrote Institutes of Christian
Religion. Although he was French he was
located in Geneva, which became a theocracy.
Believed in 2 sacraments: Communion and
baptism. Advocated salvation through faith
alone and the idea of predestination.
Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) - Founded the
Society of Jesus, resisted the spread of
Protestantism, Spiritual Exercises.
John Knox (1505?-1572) - Calvinist who learned
from Calvin in Geneva and then dominated the
movement for reform in Scotland.
Martin Luther (1483-1546) - 95 Thesis, posted in
1517, led to religious reform in Germany, denied
papal power and absolutist rule. Claimed there
were only 2 sacraments: Communion and
baptism. Justification through faith alone, good
works is a result of justification. Lutherans owe
loyalty to the state. Believed in
consubstantiation.
Johann Tetzel - The leading seller of
Indulgences. Infuriated Luther.
John Wycliffe (1328?-1384) - Forerunner to the
Reformation. Created English Lollardy.
Attacked the corruption of the clergy, and
questioned the power of the pope. Translated
the Bible into English.
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) - Swiss reformer,
influenced by Christian humanism. He looked to
the state to supervise the church. Banned music
and relics from services. Killed in a civil war.
Henry IV of Bourbon-Navarre (1553-1610) - The
first Bourbon king of France who ended nearly
forty years of civil war. He won the War of the
Three Henrys and converted to Catholicism to
save France from further bloodshed stating
“Paris is worth a Mass.” He was assassinated by
a religious fanatic in 1610.
Exploration
John Cabot (1461-1498) - Italian-born navigator
explored the coast of New England, Nova Scotia,
and Newfoundland. Gave England a claim in
North America.
Bartholomew Diaz (1487-1488) - Portuguese
explorer. First European to reach the southern
tip of Africa.
Hernan Cortez
Sir Francis Drake (1540?-1596) - English sea
captain, robbed Spanish treasure ships, 'singed
the king beard' involved in the fighting the
Spanish armada (1588).
King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella - Monarchs
who united Spain; responsible for the
reconquista.
Vasco da Gama (1496?-1524) - Sailed from
Portugal for India.
Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) - Prince
of Portugal who established an observatory and
school of navigation at Sagres and directed
voyages that spurred the growth of Portugal's
colonial empire.
Ferdinand Magellan (1480?-1521) - Portuguese
navigator. While trying to find a western route
to Asia, he was killed in the Philippines (1521).
One of his ships returned to Spain (1522),
thereby completing the first circumnavigation of
the globe.
Sir Walter Raleigh (1552?-1618) - English
courtier, navigator, colonizer, and writer. A
favorite of Elizabeth I, he introduced tobacco
and the potato to Europe. Convicted of treason
by James I, he was released for another
expedition to Guiana and executed after its
failure.
Absolutism and Constitutionalism
Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642) - Became
President of the Council of ministers and the
first minister of the French crown. Strengthened
the absolute power of King Louis XIII.
Louis XIV - "Sun King" (r. 1643-1715) -had the
longest reign in European history. Helped
France to reach its peak of absolutist power.
Jean-Babtiste Colbert (1619-1683) - An advisor
to Louis XIV who proved himself a financial
genius who managed the entire royal
administration.
William of Orange (r. 1689-1702) - Dutch prince
invited to be king of England after The Glorious
Revolution. Joined League of Augsburg as a foe
of Louis XIV.
Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) - Led the
Roundheads. Thought he was chosen by God He
ruled England as Lord Protector by using his
New Model Army to control the government.
Eventually he ruled as a military dictator.
Queen Elizabeth I
King James I
Charles I
Charles II
John Locke (1632-1704) - Believed people were
born like blank slates and the environment
shapes development, (tabula rasa). Wrote Essay
Concerning Human Understanding, and Second
Treatise of Government.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) - Leading secular
exponent of absolutism and unlimited
sovereignty of the state. Absolutism produced
civil peace and rule of law. Tyranny is better
than chaos.
Frederick William the Great Elector (1620-1688)
- First man who made modern Prussia by
strengthening the army and centralizing the
bureaucracy.
Maria Theresa
Scientific Revolution
Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) - Vesalius studied
the anatomical work of the ancient Greek
physician Galen. He published On the Fabric of
the Human Body (1543), which is concerned the
first great work of modern science and became
the foundation of modern biology.
Bacon,V (1561-1626) - English politician, writer.
Formalized the empirical method. Novum
Organum (1620). Encouraged inductive
reasoning.
Brahe, Tycho (1546-1601) - Established himself
as Europe's foremost astronomer of his day,
made detailed observations of a new star in 1572.
Copernicus, Nicolaus (1473-1543) - Polish
clergyman. Sun was the center of the universe;
the planets went around it. On the Revolution of
Heavenly Spheres (1543). Destroyed Aristotle's
view of the universe - heliocentric theory.
Kepler, Johanes (1571-1630) – German
mathematician. Expanded on the work of Brahe
and found the orbit of the planets were ellipses
Descartes, René (1596-1650) - French
philosopher and mathematician who was
educated by the Jesuits. Discovered analytical
geometry and saw Algebra and Geometry have a
direct relationship. Reduced everything to
spiritual or physical (Cartesian Dualism).
Famous for the saying “cogito, ergo sum” (I
think therefore I am).
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) - Created modern
experimental method. Formulated the law of
inertia. Tried for heresy and forced to recant.
Saw Jupiter’s moons. Wrote Dialogue on the Two
Chief Systems of the World.
Harvey, William (1578-1657) - Englishman who
announced blood circulates throughout the body.
Laid the foundation of modern medicine.
Newton, Isaac (1642-1727) - English scientist and
mathematician who developed 3 laws of motion.
Principal of Natural Philosophy (1687).
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Voltaire (1694-1778) - French, perhaps greatest
Enlightenment thinker. Deist. Mixed
glorification and reason with an appeal for
better individuals and institutions. Wrote
Candide.
Montesquieu (1689-1755) - French philosophe.
Wrote The Spirit of Laws (1748). Said, "Power
checks power" and expressed the idea of
separation of powers.
Agricultural Revolution
Jethro Tull (1674-1741) - English inventor
advocated the use of horses instead of oxen.
Invented the seed drill (1701?), selective
breeding and the idea of using manure.
Revolutions
Adam Smith (1723-1790) - Scottish professor of
philosophy. Developed the idea of free
enterprise, critical of mercantilism. Wrote
Wealth of Nations.
Thomas Paine
George III
George Washington
Thomas Jefferson
Benjamin Franklin
Napoleon Bonaparte
Jacques Louis David (1748-1825) - Napoleon’s
painter: painted in the neoclassical style. He
painted the famous portrait of Napoleon’s
coronation and other pictures that portrayed
Napoleon in a heroic manner.
Louis XVI (1774-1792) - King of Franceexecuted for treason by the National Conventionabsolute monarch-husband of Marie Antoinette.
Marie Antoinette (1755-1793) - Louis XVI’s wife
and sister of Leopold of Austria-executed.
Olympe de Gouges
Horatio Nelson
Arthur Wellington (Duke of Wellington)
Robespierre (1758-1794) - A very radical Jacobin
and member of the National Assembly. He led
the Mountains and created the Committee of
Public Safety, which he led a dictator. He also
began the Reign of Terror during which time he
tried to eliminate all opposition. Executed in
1794 during the Thermidorian Reaction.
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) – English
feminist author who wrote Vindication of the
Rights of Women. She went to Paris to witness
the Revolution.
Louis XVIII (r. 1814-24) - Tried to issue the
Constitutional Charter of 1814, which accepted
many revolutionary changes and guaranteed
civil liberties
Metternich, Count Klemens von (1773-1859) Metternich was the Austrian foreign minister
who basically controlled the Congress of Vienna.
Wanted to promote peace, conservatism, and the
repression of liberal nationalism throughout
Europe.
Industrial Revolution
James Watt (1736-1819) - Added a condenser to
Newcomen's steam engine to make it more
efficient. Led to steam becoming a viable source
of power.
Nationalism
Alexander II (r.1855-81) - Emperor of Russia;
advocated moderate reforms for Russia;
emancipated the serfs; he was assassinated.
Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861) Endorsed the economic doctrines of the middle
class. Worked for a secret alliance with Napoleon
III against Austria. Worked to unite Italy.
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-82) - An Italian
radical who emerged as a powerful independent
force in Italian politics. He planned to liberate
the Two Kingdoms of Sicily.
Leopold II (r. 1865-1909) - King of Belgium, sent
Henry Stanley to the African Congo to
encourage Belgium interests with African
Chieftains.
Cyrus McCormick
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) - Italy idealistic
patriot; preached a centralized democratic
republic based on universal suffrage and the will
of the people.
Sir Richard Arkwright (1732-1792) - Invented
water frame at almost the same time as the
spinning jenny was invented.
Napoleon III (r. 1852-1870) - Original
Napoleon’s nephew; consolidated conservative
government and the ideals of nationalism.
Benjamin Disraeli (1804-81) - British
Conservative-extended vote to all middle class
male workers, needed to broaden aristocratic
voter base.
Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) - Prussian
chancellor who engineered the unification of
Germany under his rule.
Eli Whitney
James Hargreaves - About 1760 invented
spinning jenny
John Kay (1704-1764) - English inventor of the
flying shuttle, (1733).
Karl Marx (1818-1883) - German - father of
socialism - emancipation of women - Communist
Manifesto (1848).
Thomas Newcomen (1663-1729) - English
inventor of a steam engine (1705) that used coal,
very inefficient.
Miguel Hidalgo
Simon Bolivar
Toussaint L’Ouverture
Jose de San Martin
Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902) - Played a major
political and economic role in colonial South
Africa. He was a financier, statesman, and
empire builder with a philosophy of mystical
imperialism.
Winston Churchill (1874-1965) – Perhaps the
greatest wartime leader; rallied the British with
his speeches, infectious confidence, and bulldog
determination; known for his "iron curtain"
speech; led the British during World War II;
agreed Hitler should be conquered; was replaced
after the war.
Rudyard Kipling
Adolf Hitler
Joseph Conrad
Benito Mussolini
Mark Twain
Joseph Stalin (1879-1953) - Communist
statesman; leader of Bolshevik Party; became
ruler of USSR after Lenin; assumed full military
and political leadership.
Imperialism
Emilio Aguinaldo
William McKinley
Great War
Kaiser Wilhelm II (r. 1888-1918) - Germany.
Dismissed Bismarck in 1890. Did not renew
Bismarck’s treaty with Russia and "forced"
Russia to look for another ally, France.
Archduke Francis Ferdinand (ahlwS)
V. I. Lenin (1870-1924) - Believed in Marxist
Socialism: 1) Believed capitalism must be
destroyed. 2) A social revolution was possible in
backward Russia. 3) The need for highly trained
workers partly controlled by revolutionaries like
himself.
Nicholas II (r. 1894-1917) - the last tsar. Wanted
supreme rule of army and government. Led the
armies to defeat. Forced to abdicate in 1917 by
the Duma.
Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) - U.S. President,
who led USA into WWI. He proposed the 14
points. He attended the peace conference at
Versailles.
Russian Revolution
Leon Trotsky (1879-1940)
World War II and beyond
Neville Chamberlain (1869-1940) - Gullible
British Prime Minister; declared that Britain
and France would fight if Hitler attacked
Poland.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Dwight D. Eisenhower-general of all Allied
forces in Europe
Douglas MacArthur
Hirohito
Tojo
Mao Zedong
Chiang Kai Shek
Mohandas Gandhi
Modern Europe
Clement Attlee (1883-1967) - Socialist Labor
Party under him moved toward establishment of
a "Welfare State"; formed government of
England after Churchill; nationalized industries.
Imre Nagy (1896?-1958) - Liberal Communist
reformer installed as Chief by the people of
Budapest. He was executed by the Soviets for
supporting the Hungarian people in the
revolution of 1956.
Charles De Gaulle (1890-1970) - Leader of Free
French General that resigned in 1946 after reestablishing the free, democratic Fourth
Republic.
Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971) - Russian
premier after Stalin. Led de-Stalinization of
Russia. A reformer who argued for major
innovations.
George C. Marshall
Dwight D. Eisenhower
Richard M. Nixon
John F. Kennedy
Lyndon B. Johnson
Ronald Reagan
Margaret Thatcher
Pope Paul II
Nelson Mandela