Download Russian Serfdom – The serfs were the worst off in Russia out of any

TERMS
Civilization- A form of human culture. Some traits are urbanism, metallurgy, and writing.
Culture- The ways of living built up by a group and passed on from one generation to another. It
includes Behavior, material things, ideas, institutions, and beliefs
Polis- City States in Greece. They were little Agricultural villages or towns. They were
independent political units.
Partician- The higher class in ancient Rome
Plebelian- The lower class in ancient Rome
TribuneLaity-members of the church who attend church but aren't part of the clergy
Qu’ran- A series of revelations recieved by Muhammad over a period of time and compiled by
his successors.
Excommunication- To get thrown out of a church
Bablonian CaptivitiyHumanist- a person of applied knowledge, their basic criticism of traditional education was that
much of it was useless. They believed education should promote individual virtue and public
service.
Interdict- is a denial of all church services, for example, if the pope wanted a king to do
something that the king wouldn't do, the pope would interdict the nation, cutting it off from the
church, to force the king to do Something
Inquisition-is the Spanish thing which is basically a search to see if someone is a heretic
Heresy- an opinion or doctrine at variance with religious orthodoxy
Condottieri- Italian mercenaries
Antitrinitarians- exponents of a commonsense, rational, and ethical religion. Chief one was
Michael Servetus. They believed strongly in Calvinism. They do not believe in the trinity. They
believe that there is 1 God.
Treaty of Westphalia- It ended the Thirty Years War. It rescinded Ferdinand’s Edict of
Restitution and firmly reasserted the major feature of the religious settlement of the peace of
Augsburg, as the ruler of each land was again permitted to determine the religion of his land. It
gave the Calvinists their legal recognition. The independence of the Swiss Confederacy and the
United Provinces of Holland was now proclaimed in law.
Enlightened Absolutism- describes the time period when several European rulers had actually
embraced many of the reforms set forth by the philosophes.
BurgerBourgeoisie- The middle class of Europe
Politiques- Rulers who tended to subordinate theological doctrine to political unity, urging
tolerance, moderation, and compromise- even indifference- in religious matters.
Theocracy-is where the government and church are united under one throne/person
Puritans- Protestants working within the national church to “purify” it of every vestige of
“popery” and to make its Protestant Doctrine more precise
Huguenot- French Protestants
Petition of Rights- It is an important declaration of constitutional freedom that required that
henceforth there should be no forced loans or taxation without the consent of parliament, that no
freeman should be imprisoned without just cause, and that troops should not be billeted in private
homes
Edict of Nantes- was a formal religious settlement. It recognized and sanctioned minority
religious rights within what was to remain an officially Catholic Country. It granted the
Huguenots freedom of public worship, the right of assembly, admission to public offices and
universities, and permission to maintain fortified towns
Mercantilism- a close kind of government control of the economy. Its aim was to maximize
foreign exports and internal reserves of bullion, the gold and silver necessary for making war.
Laissez-faire capitalism-Smith is usually regarded as the founder of laissez-faire economic
thought and policy, which favors a limited role for the government in economic life.
Parlement- French. Their purpose was to exercise considerable authority over local administration
and taxation, could choose to enforce or not enforce laws passed by the King, a localized legal
system, not a representative body.
Parliaments – British. Similar to our congress in that they were a representative body who passed
laws and restrained the power of the throne.
Whig- Opposition members of Parliament
Tory- royal supporters of the king
Diet (Poland)- the polish diet is the thing, remember where it was exploding the diet
Pragmatic Sanction-It was published by Charles VII. The National rights over religion were
acknowledged in this agreement. It recognized the right of the French church to elect its own
clergy without papal interference, prohibited the payments of annated to Rome, and limited the
right of appeals form French courts to the Curia in Rome.
Banalties- Nearly all French peasants were subject to certain feudal dues, called banalities.
Corvee- A labor tax that created a national force of drafted workers used to improve roads and the
conditions of internal travel
Creol- People of European descent born in the Spanish colonies
Boyar-The old nobility
Junker- Prussian nobles
Versailles-The palace court at Versailles on the outskirts of Paris became Louis XIV’s permanent
residence after 1682. Became the center of European life.
Escorial- Phillip II’s palace outside Madrid that was a combination of a palace, church, tomb, and
a monastery
Taille- A French direct tax on the peasantry and a major source of royal income
Gabelle- a French salt tax
Enlightened Monarch
Sans-culottes - People similar to the Jacobins. The Sans-culotttes people of Paris and got their
name because they wore long pants instead of aristocratic knee britches
Declaration of the Rights of Man -The National Constitutuent Assembly Decided to set forth a
statement of broad principles. The Declaration drew upon much of the political language of the
Enlightenment and was also influenced by America's Declaration of Rights.
levée en masse- a military requisition on the entire population, conscripting males into the army
and directing economic production to military purposes-- by Carnot
Civil Const. Clergy-In July 1790, the National Constituent Assembly issued the Civil
Constitution of the Clergy, which transformed a branch of the secular state. I reduced the number
of bishoprics from 135 to 83 and brought the borders of the dioceses into conformity with those
of the new departments. It also provided for the election of priests and bishops.
Concordat of 1801-Napolean with Pope Pius VII a settlement that gave Napoleon what he most
wanted. It required both the refractory clergy and those who had accepted the revolution to
resign. Also declared Catholicism to be the major religion of France.
Continental system-Napolean planned to cut off all British trade with the European continent and
thus cripple British commerce and financial power. He hoped this would cause domestic unrest
and revolution, and thus to drive the British forces out of the war
Utilitarianism – sought the greatest amount of happiness for the largest amount of people
Eastern Question – What should the European powers do about Ottoman inability to assure
political and administrative stability in its holdings in and around the eastern Mediterranean?
Chartism- A form of political reform. Chartists issued the Charter, which demanded six specific
reforms. The six points of the charter included universal manhood suffrage, annual election of
the House of Commons, the secret ballot, equal electoral districts, abolition of property
qualifications for members of the House of Commons, and payment of salaries to members of the
House of Commons
Communism – a theory that originated with Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that involved the
sharing of economic and personal ideas and property.
Socialism- questioned the structures and values of the existing capitalistic framework. Among the
earliest people to define the social question were a group of writers called the utopian socialists
by their later critics.
Proletariazination- the term is used to indicate the entry of workers into a wage economy and
their gradual loss of significant ownership of the means of production, such as tools and
equipment, and of control over the control over the conduct of their own trades.
People
Charlemagne = He was the Frankish king whose kingdom loosely embraced modern France,
Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, almost the whole of western Germany, much of Italy, a portion of
Spain, and the island of Corsica. Charlemagne carefully developed strong political ties with local
nobles and with the Church, which regarded him as its protector. He was crowned emperor and
was the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire.
Mohammed = He is the founder of Islam. He received his call to be "the Prophet" at the age of
forty.
Ferdinand of Aragon = He married Isabella of Castille and united Spain. Ferdinand and Isabella
were able to subdue their realms, secure their
borders, venture abroad militarily, and Christianize the whole of Spain.
Isabella of Castille = She married Ferdinand of Aragon and united Spain. Ferdinand and Isabella
were able to subdue their realms, secure their borders, venture abroad militarily, and Christianize
the whole of Spain.
Catherine of Aragon = She was Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castille's second daughter.
She wed Arthur, the son of the English king Henry VIII. After Arthur's premature death, she was
betrothed to his brother, the future king Henry VIII, whom she married eight years later in 1509.
The failure of this marriage became the key factor in the emergence of the Anglican Church and
the English Reformation.
Henry VIII = He married Catherine of Aragon. When she produced no male heirs, he annuled the
marriage and married the pregnant Anne Boleyn. Henry's domestic life proved to lack the
consistency of his political life. In 1536 Anne Boleyn was executed for alleged treason and
adultery, and her daughter, Elizabeth, was declared illegitimate. Henry had four further
marriages.
Henry of Navarre (IV) = appointed Catholics to high places in the Anglican Church. Good guy,
got converted to Catholicism though
Luther = He posted the ninety-five theses against indulgences on the door of Castle Church in
Wittenberg, he protested especially against impression created by Tetzel that indulgences actually
remitted sins and released the dead from punishment in purgatory. Luther believed these claims
went far beyond the traditional practice and seemed to make salvation something that could be
bought and sold.
Calvin = He created the Protestant ideology of Calvinism. He was born into a well-to-do family.
He received church benefices at age twelve, which financed the best possible education at
Parisian colleges. He was later converted to Protestantism and wrote Institutes of the Christian
Religion, which many consider the definitive theological statement of the Protestant faith.
Zwingli = He was the leader of the Swiss Reformation. He was strongly influenced by Erasmus,
whom he credited with having set him on the path to reform. Zwingli was widely known for the
opposition to the sale of indulgences and to religious superstition. One of Zwingli's first acts as a
reformer was to petition for an end to clerical celibacy and for the right of all clergy to marry.
His guideline to reform was that whatever lacked literal support in Scripture was to be neither
believed nor practiced.
Ignatius Loyola = The founder of the Jesuits, Ignatius of Loyola, was a heroic figure. He began
his spiritual pilgrimage in 1521 after he had been wounded in the legs during a battle with the
French. He read Christian classics while he was injured and was so impressed with the heroic
self-sacrifice of the Church's saints and their methods of overcoming mental anguish and pain
that he underwent a profound religious conversion. He wrote Spiritual Exercises.
Erasmus = He earned the nickname of "prince of the Humanists". He gained fame as both and
educational and a religious reformer. He published the books, Colloquies and Adages. Erasmus
aspired to unite the classical ideals of humanity and civic virtue with the Christian ideals of love
and piety.
Elizabeth I = She was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Elizabeth had remarkable
and enduring successes in both domestic and foreign policy. Elizabeth hoped to avoid both
Catholic and Protestant extremism at the official level by pursuing a middle way.
Dante = He wrote Vita Nouva and Divine Comedy. He wrote of hell, purgatory and paradise in
his Divine Comedy.
Durer = He was a northern Renaissance artist
Galen = Ancient Greek scientist of anatomy
Giotto = He was the father of Renaissance painting. Giotto painted a more natural world than his
Byzantine and Gothic predecessors.
Machiavelli = He was a Humanist and a careful student of ancient Rome, Machiavelli was
impressed by the way Roman rulers and citizens had then defended their fatherland. He also held
deep republican ideals, which he did not want to see vanish from Italy. He believed that a strong
and determined people could struggle successfully with fortune. He scolded the Italian people for
the self-destruction of their own internal feuding was causing. It has been argued that
Machiavelli wrote The Prince in 1513 as a cynical satire on the way rulers actually did behave
and not as a serious recommendation of unprincipled despotic rule. The Prince was pointedly
dedicated to Lorenzo de Medici.
Michelangelo = The melancholy genius Michelangelo also excelled in a variety of arts and
Crafts. He created a statue of David. He painted the Sistine Chapel.
The de Medicis = this family was the ruler of Florence, Italy; one was a pope; and Machiavelli’s
“The Prince” was written about/for them
Raphael = He is famous for his tender Madonnas, the best known of which graced the monastery
of San Sisto in Piacenza and in now in Dresden.
Valla = Although a good Catholic, Valla became a hero to later Protestants. He wrote Donation of
Constantine.
Leonardo da Vinci = More than any other person in the period, Leonardo exhibited the
Renaissance ideal of the universal person. He was a true master of many skills. He was a great
painter and scientist. He was also an inventor. He painted the Mona Lisa.
John Locke = Locke has proved to be the most influential political thinker of the seventeenth
century. Locke sympathized with the Puritans and the parliamentary forces that challenged the
Stuart monarchy. Locke believed that the teachings of Christianity to be identical to what
uncorrupted reason taught. He believed that absolute monarchy was "inconsistent" with civil
society and can be " no form of civil government at all." Locke believed that the natural human
state was one of perfect freedom and equality in which everyone enjoyed, in unregulated fashion,
the natural rights of life, liberty, and property. Locke explained human psychology in terms of
experience. Locke argued that all humans enter the world a tabula rasa. He wrote An Essay
Concerning Human Understanding.
Thomas Hobbes = He was the most original political philosopher of the seventeenth century. He
never broke with the Church of England, but he embraced basic Calvinist beliefs. He supported
the new scientific movement. The English Civil War made Hobbes a political philosopher and
inspired his Leviathan. Hobbes viewed people and society in a thoroughly materialistic and
mechanical way. Hobbes believed people could accomplish much by the reasoned use of
science. Earlier and later philosophers saw the original human state as a paradise from which
humankind had fallen; Hobbes saw it a corruption from which only society could deliver people.
He also believed in rulers that have absolute and unlimited power.
Voltaire = He wrote Letters on the English and Elements of the Philosophy of Newton. He used
satire and sarcasm against one evil after another in French and European life. He believed that
improvement of human society was necessary and possible.
Rousseau = He held a view of the exercise and reform of political power quite different from
Montesquieu's. Rosseau was a strange, isolated genius who never felt particularly comfortable
with the other philosophes. He wrote Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences.
Montesquieu = He was a lawyer, noble of the robe, and a member of a provincial parlement. He
wrote The Persian Letters and The Spirit of the Laws.
Diderot = He wrote the Encyclopedia with Jean le Rond d'Alembert.
Adam Smith = He opposed mercantilism. He is regarded as the founder of Laissez-faire
economic thought and policy. He wrote The Wealth of Nations. He is the father of capitalism.
Louis XIII = he was only nine years old at his father's death, so the task of governing fell to the
queen mother. He married the Spanish Infanta.
Louis XIV = Louis XIV was only five years old when Louis XII died. During his minority, the
queen mother, Anne of Austria placed the reins of government in the hands of Cardinal Mazarin.
On the death of Mazarin, Louis XIV assumed personal control of the government. Mazarin
prepared Louis XIV well to rule France. He created Verailles.
Charles X = He was the king of France. Charles restored the rule of primogeniture, whereby only
the eldest son of an aristocrat inherited the family domains. He issued the Four Ordinances,
staging what amounted to a royal coup d'etat. He abdicated and left France for exile in England.
Louis Philippe = Louis Philippe was called king of the French rather than king of France. The
tricolor flag of the revolution replaced the white flag of the Bourbons.
Copernicus = He was a Polish astronomer and was not known for unorthodox thought. He
published a book called On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. In his book he challenged
Ptolemaic system in the most conservative manner possible. He said that by letting the earth
move around the sun, he would be able to astronomy in more mathematical terms. He also said
that the planets had a circular orbit.
Galileo = He invented the telescope. He found that the heavens were far more complex than
anyone had formerly suspected. His findings suggest the complete inadequacy of the Ptolemaic
system. Galileo publicized his findings and arguments for the Copernican system in numerous
works. His most famous work was Dialogues on the Two Chief Systems of the World. This
book brought him condemnation of the Roman Catholic Church. He was forced to recant his
opinions. His most important achievement was to articulate the concept of a universe totally
subject to mathematical laws.
Brahe = He opposed Copernicus' earth-centered system. He suggested that the moon and the sun
revolved around the earth and that all other planets revolved around the sun. By attacking
Copernicus, however, he gave the latter's ideas more publicity. He used a series of new nakedeye astronomical observations. He also constructed the most accurate tables of observations that
had been drawn up for centuries.
Kepler = He was a German astronomer that was convinced in the Copernican theories. His
reasons for taking this position were not scientific, but were because he was deeply influenced by
Renaissance Neoplatonism, which held the sun in special honor. He discovered that to keep the
sun at the center of things, he must abandon the Copernican concept of circular orbits and make
the orbits elliptical. He published his findings in his book, On the Motion of Mars. His ideas
were found using Copernicus's sun-centered universe and Brahe's empirical data. He also created
a new problem. None of the available theories could explain why the planetary orbits were
elliptical.
Francis Bacon = Bacon was and Englishman of almost universal accomplishment. He was a
lawyer, a high royal official, and the author of histories, moral essays, and philosophical
discourses. Traditionally, he has been regarded as the father of empiricism and of
experimentation in science. Bacon attacked the Scholastic belief that most truth had already been
discovered and only required explanation, as well as the Scholastic reverences for intellectual
authority in general. He believed that human knowledge should produce useful results. Bacon
believed that science had a practical purpose and its goal was human improvement. Bacon linked
science and material progress in the public mind.
Déscartes = He was a gifted mathematician who invented analytic geometry. His most important
contribution, however, was to develop a scientific method that relied more on deduction than
empirical observation and induction. He published his Discourse on Method, in which he
attempted to provide a basis for all thinking founded on a mathematical model. The presence of
God was important to Descartes because God guaranteed the correctness of clear and distinct
ideas. Descartes concluded that human reason could fully comprehend the world.
Mary Wollstonecraft = She wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.
Pascal = He was a French mathematician and a physical scientist who surrendered all his wealth
to pursue and austere, self-disciplined life. He considered the Jesuits casuistry a distortion to
Christian teaching. Pascal allied himself with the Jansenists. Pascal believed that reason and
science were of no avail in matters of religion. He saw two essential truths in the Christian
religion: that a loving God, worthy of human attainment, exists, and that human beings, because
they are corrupt by nature, are utterly unworthy of God. He was convinced that belief in God
improved life psychologically and disciplined it morally.
Spinoza = He was the most controversial thinker of the seventeenth century. He was the son of a
Jewish merchant in Amsterdam. His philosophy caused his excommunication by his own
synagogue. Both Jews and Protestants attacked him as an atheist. Spinoza closely identified God
and nature that little room seemed left either for divine revelation in Scripture or for the personal
immortality of the soul. He wrote Ethics that was condemned because of its apparent espousal of
pantheism (a doctrine equating God and nature).
Shakespeare = He was the greatest playwright in the English language. He apparently worked as
a schoolteacher for a time and in this capacity gained his broad knowledge of Renaissance
learning and literature. Shakespeare knew the theater as one who participated in every phase of
its life - as a playwright, an actor, and part owner of a theater.
Milton = He was the son of a devout Puritan father. Milton believed that standing a test of
character was the most important thing in a person's life. This belief informed his own personal
life and is the subject of much of his literary work. Employing his writing talent, he defended the
Presbyterian form of Church government against the episcopacy and supported other Puritan
reforms. Milton believed that government should have the least possible control over the private
lives of individuals. He also defended the execution of Charles I in a tract entitled On the Tenure
of Kings and Magistrates. He also wrote many other books
Catherine the Great =She was born a German princess, but who became empress of Russia. She
was married to Peter III who many thought was mad. She approved his murder. She tried
initially to enact major reforms, but she never intended to abandon absolutism. She assured the
nobility of their rights and by the end of her reign had imposed press censorship.
Peter the Great = He was ten years old when he became co-ruler with his half brother. Peter mad
sustained attacks on the boyars. He created a Table of Ranks. He also brutally suppressed a
streltsy revolt. He achieved secular control of the church. He also made Russia a major military
power.
Cromwell = Oliver Cromwell led the New Model Army. He defeated the royalists in the English
Civil War. After the execution of Charles I in 1694, Cromwell dominated the short-lived English
republic, conquered Ireland and Scotland, and ruled as Lord Protector from 1653 until his death
in 1658.
Maria Theresa = She was married to Louis XIV. She had to renounce her claim to the Spanish
succession on condition that a 500,000-crown dowry be paid to Louis within eighteen months of
the marriage, a condition that was not met.
Mary Stuart = She was the daughter of King James V of Scotland and Mary of Guise and had
resided in France from the time she was six years old. This thoroughly French and Catholic
queen had returned to Scotland after the death of her husband, the French king Francis II, in 1561.
Frederick William the Great Elector = He was named the Great Elector because he was one of the
princes who elected the Holy Roman Emperor. He collected taxes by military force. He used the
money to build up and army that allowed him to continue to enforce his will without the approval
of the nobility.
Robespierre = He was one of the most prominent leaders of the Committee of Public Safety. Also
lead the Reign of Terror that resulted in the Thermodorian Reaction.
Kant = He wrote the two greatest philosophical works of the late eighteenth century: The Critique
of Pure Reason and The Critique of Practical Reason. He sought to accept the rationalism of the
Enlightenment and still to preserve a belief in human freedom, immortality, and the existence of
God.
Hegel = He was the most important person to write about history during the romantic period. He
is one of the most difficult and important philosophers in the history of Western civilization.
Hegel believed that ideas develop in an evolutionary fashion that involves conflict.
Metternich = Prince Klemens von Metternich, the Austrian foreign minister, would have been
glad to negotiated peace that would leave Napoleon on the throne of a shrunken and chastened
France rather to see Europe dominated by Russia.
Talleyrand = Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord, Bonaparte's foreign minister, later termed
the act "worse than a crime- a blunder" because it helped to provoke foreign opposition
Castlereagh = Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, The British foreign secretary. Brought the
signing of Treaty of Chaumount.
More People
Karl Marx = He started Marxism. He became a friend with Engel. He wrote Manifest and
Capital. Marx and Engels contended that human history must be understood rationally and as a
whole. History is the record of humankind's coming to grips with physical nature to produce the
goods necessary for survival. In their eyes, the class conflict that had characterized previous
Western history had become simplified during the early nineteenth century into a struggle
between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
Frederich Engels = He wrote The Conditions of the Working Class in England, which presented a
devastating picture of industrial life. He became a good friend with Karl Marx and influenced
Marx a lot.
Goethe = He was the greatest German writer of modern times.
Thomas Malthus = He wrote about the working class and that it could not be improved. In 1798
Malthus published he first edition of his Essay on the Principle of Population. He contended that
population must eventually outstrip the food supply.
David Ricardo = He wrote Principles of Political Economy. He said that if wages were raised,
more children would be produced. They, in turn, would enter the labor market, thus expanding
the number of workers and lowering wages. As wages fell, working people would produce fewer
children. Wages would then rise, and the process would start all over again.
Judaism- Jewish religious ideas influenced the development of the West, both directly and
indirectly. Belief in an all-powerful creator. Jews were often cast as scapegoats for the bubonic
plague. The Enlightenment view of religion thus served in some ways to further stigmatize Jews.
Small Jewish communities called Ghettos were established, mostly in Poland, Lithuania, and
Ukraine. Jews didn't enjoy the rights and privileges of other subjects of the monarchs unless
rights were specifically granted to them. Jews were subjected to various religious, civil, and
social disabilities.
Roman Republic- Pope Pius IX was forced to appoint a radical ministry, he fled shortly after. In
Feb. 1849, radicals proclaimed the Roman Republic. Republican nationalists flocked to Rome.
They hoped to use the new republic as a base of operations to unite the rest of Italy under a
republican government. Defeat at Piedmont meant that Roman Republic had to defend itself
alone. French soldiers laid siege to Rome. By the end of June 1849, the Roman Republic had
dissolved. Pius IX returned to Rome.
Feudalism- Social, political, military, and economic system that emerged in response to
fragmentation and decentralization of middle Ages. Regional prince or a local lord is dominant
and highest virtues are those of mutual trust and fidelity. Vassalage involved fealty to a lord.
Fief was the physical or material wherewithal to meet the vassal's military and other obligations.
Local levels, manors, serfs. Feudalism could lead to a confused set of relationships.
Crusades- Pope Urban II proclaimed the First Crusade at the Council of
Clermont in France. Crusade to liberate the Holy Land from Muslim control. Jerusalem fell to
Crusaders from France, Germany, and Italy on July 15, 1099. Jerusalem fell into Muslim hands
again by the middle of the next century. Other crusades were attempted, but had little success.
Crusades stimulated new trade between Western Europe and the East. First crusades- 1096-1099.
Second- 1147-1149. Third- 1189-1192.
Medieval Government- Before 1450. Feudal monarchy of middle Ages was characterized by the
division of the basic powers of government between the king and vassals. Nobility and the towns
had acted with varying degrees of unity and success. Dynastic and chivalric ideals. Page 377.
Hundred Years War- Lasted from May 1337 to Oct. 1453. Fought between France and Britain as
a struggle for national identity and control of territory. France was bigger and richer, but England
won most battles. Comparative mediocrity of France's royal leadership, English kings were far
shrewder. Estates General, Jacquerie, Joan of Arc. In 1435, duke of Burgundy made peace with
Charles. Continued to force English back until 1453. 68 years of peace, 44 of war. France was
devastated; Burgundy became a major political power.
Bubonic Plague- Overpopulation, economic depression, famine, and bad health helped cause the
Black Death. Plague was transmitted by fleas on rats. People tried to find reasons for the plague,
scapegoats. Shrunken labor supply and a decline in the value of the estates of the nobility. Gain
and loss for the Church. About one-third of Europe's population was killed. New conflicts and
opportunities.
Growth of Monarchies- Representative bodies persisted and in some areas even grew in
influence. Territorial princes didn't pass from the scene. In a sovereign state, the powers of
taxation, war making, and law enforcement no longer belong to semiautonomous vassals but are
concentrated in the monarch and are exercised by his or her chosen agents. Began to create
standing national armies. Growing cost of warfare increased the need of monarchs for new
national sources of income; their efforts to expand royal revenues were hampered. They
borrowed from rich nobles and great bankers of Italy and Germany. France, Spain, England,
Holy Roman Empire. Monarchs gained powerover war, taxes, law. Took power from
representative bodies.
Renaissance Art- Loss of power in church, new perspective on life. The art was emphatically
concerned with the observation of the natural world and the communication of human emotions.
Artists tried to give their works a greater rational order. They had the advantage of new technical
skills developed during the 15th century. Linear perspective, chiaroscuro. Giotto was the father
of Renaissance painting. Masaccio, Donatello, Leonardo, Raphael, Michelangelo reached great
heights. Mannerism followed Renaissance painting.
North and South Renaissance- Southern Renaissance in Italy inspired Northern Renaissance.
City-states dominated political and economic life. Italian cities were left free to expand into
states. Italian Renaissance was viewed as the birth of modernity. Humanism grew; Petrarch was
father of humanism. Humanists refused to be slaves to tradition. See above for Art. Northern
Humanists created a climate favorable to religious and educational reforms. They developed their
own distinct culture. The printing press helped spread ideas. Erasmus was a famous Humanist.
Humanism stirred educational and religious reform.
Reformation: Causes, Aims- Social and political conflict and crises of the Church helped make
the Protestant Reformation. Reformers wanted to restrict privileges of the Church and end their
abuses. They attacked burdensome superstitions that robbed people of their money and their
mind, they led a broad revolt against the medieval Church. This caused people to adopt a more
simplified religious practice. Reformation challenged aspects of the Renaissance. Protestants
were more impressed by the human potential for evil than by the inclination to do good. Spiritual
and secular protest combined to make the Reformation a successful assault on the Church. Major
institutions and practices of traditional piety were transformed.
Council of Trent = 1545-1563. Council of Church met in Trent in northern italy. curtailed the
selling of church offices and other religious goods. bishops forced to move to their appointed
seats of authority. strengthened authority of bishops so they could dicipline popular religion
practice. bishops also subjected to rules that required them to reside in their diceses. called for
construction of seminary in every diocese.
Spain's Decline = Armada was suprisingly beaten by English army. Spain's power now
distinguished. Followed by bad leaders and social dispute. Spain was once very rich but lost
control of Americas and rulers made Spain go broke.
Long Parliament = The landowners and the merchant classes represented by Parliament had
resented the king's financial meausures and parternalistic rule for some time. The Puritana in
Parliament resented his religious policies and deeply distrusted the influence of the
RomanCatholic queen. The Long Parliament thus acted with widespread support and general
unanimity when it convened in November 1640.
Glorious Revolution = William of Orange arrived with his army in November 1688 and was
received without opposistion by the English people. In the face of sure defeat, James fled to
France and the protection of Louis XIV. With James gone, Parliament declared the throne
vacants and on its own authority proclaimed William and Mary the new monarchs, completing
the successful bloddless "Glorious Revolution."
Differences between Fr. and Eng. = .England has parliament. England has navy. France had
Napoleon and revolution. England is Anglican. France controlled most of Europe at one point.
England had much more stable gov. England is an island. France spoke french, england spoke
english.
Differences between E. and W. Europe= East is undeveloped. Many struggles to get a
government going. Serfs exist. In West, government and philosophy flourished. Organized. less
cities in east.
Scientific Revolution = The process by which the new view of the universe and of scientific
knowledge came to be established is normally termed the Scientific Revolution. Not rapid,
involed only few hundred people.
Philosophes = The writers and critics who forged the new attitudes favorable to change, who
championed reform, and who flourished in the emerging print culture were the philosophes. Not
usually philosophers in a formal sense, they sought rather to apply the rules of reason and
common sense to nearly all the major insutitutions and social practices of the day.
Brit. Parliamentary system = parliament is like Congress. There are a group of men. They
delegate on different issues. Consists of different parties. House of Commons is one section.
Prime Minister is head. many rebellions and arguements. party with more people mainly
controlled.
Household economy = The household was the basic unit of production and consuption.
Depending on ages and skills, everyone in household worked. Within this family economy, all
good and income produced went to the benefit of the household rather than to the individual
family member.
Social class changes and changes in relationships between them = nobles were rich and remained
rich. Nobles had most power. The kept power. Middle class eventually overthrew.
Aristocratic resurgence = The Russian Charter of the Nobility constituted one aspect of the
broader European-wide-development termed the aristocratic resurgence. It was the nobility's
reaction to the threat to their social posistion and privileges that they felt from the expanding
power of the monarchies.
Russian Serfdom – The serfs were the worst off in Russia out of any other country. The nobles in
Russia reckoned their wealth by the number of “souls” (male serfs) that they possessed instead of
by their land. Serfs were thought of as economic commodities. Russian landlords typically
demanded 6 days of labor a week out of serfs. Serfs had no legal recourse against the orders and
whims of their lords. There was little difference between Russian serfdom and slavery. The
Russian Monarchy even degraded the serf’s position. As a result of their position, the serfs
revolted. Over 50 peasant revolts occurred between 1762 and 1769. These culminated between
1773 and 1775 in Pugachev’s Rebellion, when Emelyan Pugachev (1726 – 1775) promised the
serfs land of their own and freedom from their lords. All of the southern Russia was in turmoil
until the government brutally suppressed the rebellion. The Russian serf family tended to be large
with up to 4 generations of a family living together and as many as 20 people under one roof. At
the conclusion of the Crimean War, Tsar Alexander II announced the end of serfdom in March
1856. Russia was the last of the European countries to abolish serfdom. For five years,
Alexander’s decree wasn’t implemented until finally in 1861, against the wishes of the nobility
and the landlords, Alexander II promulgated the long statue ending serfdom in Russia.
Ruling Dynasties –
Britain
Tudors
Stuart
Hanovers
France
Balois
Bourbon
Germany
Hohenzollern
Austria
Hapsburgs
Spain
Hapsburgs
Bourbon
Russia
Romanovs
Industrial Revolution – During the second half of the eighteenth century Europe began the
industrial revolution. After industrialization Europe’s economy began to expand uninterrupted
due to unlimited production abilities. The industrial revolution started primarily in Great Britain
where the mobile society and efficient government gave industrialization the greatest ability to
grow. From the industrialization, new textile methods were developed, including the Spinning
Jenny and the Water Frame, as well as the steam engine. Iron production also increased with the
development of coke, a preheated version of coal that burned much hotter.
French Revolution – Occurred in France in 1789 under Louis XVI after a series of bad finance
ministers and a struggling French economy. After a series of revolutions including the Bastille,
the French set up a new government under a sans-culottes republic. The public rebelled again in
the Thermidorian Reaction because of Robespierre’s Reign of Terror in which he killed many
former revolutionaries. There were two more republics until the French General Napoleon
Bonaparte seized power. He turned France into a dictatorship and with conscription took control
of all of Europe from 1804 until 1814.
Napoleon – Took over France on November 10, 1799 through a coup de e’tat. While only 5’4” he
was the most powerful man in Europe. Napoleon issued a Constitution of the Year VIII and
slowly converted his republic into a dictatorship. Napoleon established a concordat with Pope
Pius VII that settled France’s religious problems. Napoleon conquered most of Europe between
1804 and 1814 in a series of military campaigns that astonished the world. He mobilized the
French nation with the newly found power of conscription. After the Treaty of Tilsit (1807) in
which Napoleon promised not to attack Russia and which gave France control of the Prussian
State. To defeat his only remaining enemy, Britain, Napoleon enacting the Continental System,
which banned all of Europe from trading with Britain. This backfired on Napoleon because
Britain still traded with the rest of the world and had a growing economy. Napoleon later attacked
Russia. This was his downfall because of his massive expenditure of forces that died trying to
take over Russia, which he never accomplished. To stop Napoleon, The four powers: England,
Russia, Prussia, and Austria, had a Congress of Vienna that formed a military force, which
crushed Napoleon at Waterloo. Napoleon was exiled and died several years later.
Romantic Movement – The romantic thinkers emphasized the individuality and worth of each
separate people and culture. A people or a nation was defined by a common language, a common
history, a homeland that possessed historical associations, and common customs. This gradual
transcendence towards nationalism led to the development of nationalism and the revolutions it
caused in 1848.
Nationalism – Nationalism proved to be the single most powerful European political ideology of
the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. As a political outlook, nationalism was and is based
on the relatively modern concept that a nation is composed of people who are joined together by
the bonds of common language, customs, culture, and history and who, because of those bonds,
should be administered by the same government.
Liberalism – The political goals of nineteenth-century liberals were to establish a political
framework of legal equality, religious toleration, and freedom of the press. Their general goal was
a political structure that would limit the arbitrary power of government against the persons and
property of individual citizens. They believed that the legitimacy of government emanated from
the freely given consent of the governed.
Conservatism – The major pillars of nineteenth-century conservatism were legitimate
monarchies, landed aristocracies, and established churches. Conservatism tended to have the
more theoretical political and religious ideas that were associated with romantic thinkers.
Conservatism was also and articulated outlook and set of cooperation institutions.
Concert of Europe – The major goal of the Concert of Europe (1820’s – 1850’s) was to maintain
the balance of power against new French aggression and against the military might of Russia. The
Concert of Europe continued to function on large and small issues until the third quarter of the
century. The Concert of Europe came from the Congress of Vienna in which the four major
powers consulted with each other on mutual foreign policy issues.
1832 Reform Bill – The Reform Bill (in England) had two broad goals. The first was to abolish
“rotten” boroughs, which had very few voters, and to replace them with representatives for the
previously unrepresented manufacturing districts and cities. Second, the number of voters was to
be increased by about 50 percent through a series of new franchises. In 1831 the House of
Commons narrowly defeated the bill. Grey (leader of the Whigs) called for a new election, in
which a majority in favor of the bill was returned. The House of Commons passed the reform bill,
but the House of Lords rejected it. Mass meeting were held throughout the country. Riots broke
out in several cities. Finally, William IV agreed to create enough new peers to give a third reform
bill a majority in the House of Lords. Under this pressure the House of Lords yielded, and in 1832
the measure became law. The bill increased the number of voters by almost 50%. It was
significant because it showed the political triumph of a middle-class in Europe for the first time.