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Chapter 1
An Introduction to
Anatomy and
Physiology
Lecture Presentation by
Lee Ann Frederick
University of Texas at Arlington
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to Studying the Human
Body
•  Classification of Living Things
•  Humans and many other animals are vertebrates
•  Characterized by a segmented vertebral column
•  Common characteristics suggest the same path in
evolution
•  Homeostasis
•  The goal of physiological regulation and the key to
survival in a changing environment
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1-1 Anatomy and Physiology Directly Affect
Your Life
•  Anatomy
•  Is the study of body structures
•  Oldest medical science: 1600 BCE
•  Physiology
•  Is the study of function
•  Biochemistry
•  Biology
•  Chemistry
•  Genetics
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1-2 Anatomy and Physiology
•  Anatomy
•  Describes the structures of the body
•  What they are made of
•  Where they are located
•  Associated structures
•  Physiology
•  Is the study of:
•  Functions of anatomical structures
•  Individual and cooperative functions
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1-3 Relationships between Anatomy and
Physiology
•  Anatomy
•  Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy,
examines large, visible structures
•  Surface anatomy: exterior features
•  Regional anatomy: body areas
•  Systemic anatomy: organ systems
•  Clinical anatomy: medical specialties
•  Developmental anatomy: from conception to death
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1-3 Relationships between Anatomy and
Physiology
•  Anatomy
•  Microscopic anatomy examines cells and
molecules
•  Cytology: study of cells and their structures
•  cyt- = cell
•  Histology: study of tissues and their structures
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1-3 Relationships between Anatomy and
Physiology
•  Physiology
•  Cell physiology: processes within and between
cells
•  Organ physiology: functions of specific organs
•  Systemic physiology: functions of an organ system
•  Pathological physiology: effects of diseases
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1-4 Levels of Organization
•  The Chemical (or Molecular) Level
•  Atoms are the smallest chemical units
•  Molecules are a group of atoms working together
•  The Cellular Level
•  Cells are a group of atoms, molecules, and
organelles working together
•  The Tissue Level
•  A tissue is a group of similar cells working together
•  The Organ Level
•  An organ is a group of different tissues working
together
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1-4 Levels of Organization
•  The Organ System Level
•  An organ system is a group of organs working
together
•  Humans have 11 organ systems
•  The Organism Level
•  A human is an organism
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Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization (Part 1 of 4).
Cellular Level
Chemical Level
Protein filaments
Atoms in combination
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Complex protein molecule
Heart muscle
cell
Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization (Part 2 of 4).
Tissue Level
Cardiac muscle
tissue
Organ Level
The heart
The
cardiovascular
system
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Organ system
level
Organism
level
1-4 Levels of Organization
•  The Organ Systems
•  Integumentary
•  Major Organs
• 
• 
• 
• 
Skin
Hair
Sweat glands
Nails
•  Functions
•  Protects against environmental hazards
•  Helps regulate body temperature
•  Provides sensory information
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1-4 Levels of Organization
•  The Organ Systems
•  Skeletal
•  Major Organs
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Bones
Cartilages
Associated ligaments
Bone marrow
•  Functions
•  Provides support and protection for other tissues
•  Stores calcium and other minerals
•  Forms blood cells
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1-4 Levels of Organization
•  The Organ Systems
•  Muscular
•  Major Organs
•  Skeletal muscles and associated
tendons
•  Functions
•  Provides movement
•  Provides protection and support for
other tissues
•  Generates heat that maintains body
temperature
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1-4 Levels of Organization
•  The Organ Systems
•  Nervous
•  Major Organs
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Brain
Spinal cord
Peripheral nerves
Sense organs
•  Functions
•  Directs immediate responses to stimuli
•  Coordinates or moderates activities of other organ
systems
•  Provides and interprets sensory information about
external conditions
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1-4 Levels of Organization
•  The Organ Systems
•  Endocrine
•  Major Organs
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Pituitary gland
• Thyroid gland
Pancreas
• Adrenal glands
Gonads
Endocrine tissues in other systems
•  Functions
•  Directs long-term changes in the activities of other
organ systems
•  Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body
•  Controls many structural and functional changes
during development
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1-4 Levels of Organization
•  The Organ Systems
•  Cardiovascular
•  Major Organs
•  Heart
•  Blood
•  Blood vessels
•  Functions
•  Distributes blood cells, water, and
dissolved materials including nutrients, waste
products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide
•  Distributes heat and assists in control of body
temperature
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1-4 Levels of Organization
•  The Organ Systems
•  Lymphatic
•  Major Organs
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Spleen
Thymus
Lymphatic vessels
Lymph nodes
Tonsils
•  Functions
•  Defends against infection and disease
•  Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream
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1-4 Levels of Organization
•  The Organ Systems
•  Respiratory
•  Major Organs
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• 
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Nasal cavities
Sinuses
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Lungs
Alveoli
1-4 Levels of Organization
•  The Organ Systems
•  Respiratory
•  Functions
•  Delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs
where gas exchange occurs)
•  Provides oxygen to bloodstream
•  Removes carbon dioxide from
bloodstream
•  Produces sounds for communication
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1-4 Levels of Organization
•  The Organ Systems
•  Digestive
•  Major Organs
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• 
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Teeth
Tongue
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas
1-4 Levels of Organization
•  The Organ Systems
•  Digestive
•  Functions
• 
• 
• 
• 
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Processes and digests food
Absorbs and conserves water
Absorbs nutrients
Stores energy reserves
1-4 Levels of Organization
•  The Organ Systems
•  Urinary
•  Major Organs
• 
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Kidneys
Ureters
Urinary bladder
Urethra
•  Functions
•  Excretes waste products from the blood
•  Controls water balance by regulating volume of
urine produced
•  Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination
•  Regulates blood ion concentrations and pH
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1-4 Levels of Organization
•  The Organ Systems
•  Male Reproductive
•  Major Organs
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Testes
Epididymides
Ductus deferentia
Seminal vesicles
Prostate gland
Penis
Scrotum
1-4 Levels of Organization
•  The Organ Systems
•  Male Reproductive
•  Functions
•  Produces male sex cells (sperm),
seminal fluids, and hormones
•  Sexual intercourse
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1-4 Levels of Organization
•  The Organ Systems
•  Female Reproductive
•  Major Organs
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Ovaries
Uterine tubes
Uterus
Vagina
Labia
Clitoris
Mammary glands
1-4 Levels of Organization
•  The Organ Systems
•  Female Reproductive
•  Functions
•  Produces female sex cells (oocytes)
and hormones
•  Supports developing embryo from
conception to delivery
•  Provides milk to nourish newborn
infant
•  Sexual intercourse
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1-5 Homeostasis
•  Homeostasis
•  All body systems working together to maintain a
stable internal environment
•  Systems respond to external and internal changes
to function within a normal range (body
temperature, fluid balance)
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1-5 Homeostasis
•  Mechanisms of Regulation
•  Autoregulation (intrinsic)
•  Automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to
some environmental change
•  Extrinsic regulation
•  Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine
systems
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1-5 Homeostasis
•  Receptor
•  Receives the stimulus
•  Control Center
•  Processes the signal and sends instructions
•  Effector
•  Carries out instructions
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Figure 1-2 The Control of Room Temperature.
RECEPTOR
Normal
condition
disturbed
Thermometer
Information
affects
STIMULUS:
Room temperature
rises
CONTROL CENTER
(Thermostat)
HOMEOSTASIS
Air
conditioner
turns on
RESPONSE:
Room temperature
drops
Normal
condition
restored
EFFECTOR
Air conditioner
turns on
20°
30° 40°
Sends
commands
to
a In response to input from a receptor (a thermometer), a thermostat (the
control center) triggers an effector response (either an air conditioner or a
heater) that restores normal temperature. In this case, when room temperature rises above the set point, the thermostat turns on the air conditioner,
and the temperature returns to normal.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Room temperature (°C)
Normal room
temperature
Air
conditioner
turns off
Normal
range
22 Set point
Time
b With this regulatory system,
room temperature fluctuates
around the set point, 22°C.
1-6 Negative and Positive Feedback
•  The Role of Negative Feedback
•  The response of the effector negates the stimulus
•  Body is brought back into homeostasis
•  Normal range is achieved
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Figure 1-3 Negative Feedback: Control of Body Temperature.
RECEPTORS
Temperature
sensors in skin
and
hypothalamus
Normal
temperature
disturbed
Information
affects
CONTROL
CENTER
STIMULUS:
Body temperature
rises
HOMEOSTASIS
Thermoregulatory
center in brain
RESPONSE:
Increased heat loss,
body temperature
drops
Normal
temperature
restored
EFFECTORS
• Sweat glands
in skin increase
secretion
• Blood vessels
in skin dilate
Sends
commands
to
a Events in the regulation of body temperature, which are comparable to
those shown in Figure 1–2. A control center in the brain (the hypothalamus)
functions as a thermostat with a set point of 37°C. If body temperature
exceeds 37.2°C, heat loss is increased through enhanced blood flow to the
skin and increased sweating.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Body temperature (°C)
Normal body
temperature
Vessels
dilate,
sweating
increases
37.2
Set point
37
36.7
Vessels
constrict,
sweating
decreases
Normal
range
Time
b The thermoregulatory center
keeps body temperature fluctuating within an acceptable range,
usually between 36.7°C and
37.2°C.
1-6 Negative and Positive Feedback
•  The Role of Positive Feedback
•  The response of the effector increases change of
the stimulus
•  Body is moved away from homeostasis
•  Normal range is lost
•  Used to speed up processes
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Figure 1-4 Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting.
Clotting
accelerates
Positive
feedback
loop
Chemicals
Damaged cells in the blood
vessel wall release chemicals that begin the clotting
process.
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The chemicals start chain
reactions in which cells,
cell fragments, and soluble
proteins in the blood begin
to form a clot.
Chemicals
Blood clot
As clotting continues, each
step releases chemicals
that further accelerate the
process.
This escalating process
is a positive feedback
loop that ends with the
formation of a blood clot,
which patches the vessel
wall and stops the bleeding.
1-6 Negative and Positive Feedback
•  Systems Integration
•  Systems work together to maintain homeostasis
•  Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium
•  Opposing forces are in balance
•  Dynamic equilibrium — continual adaptation
•  Physiological systems work to restore balance
•  Failure results in disease or death
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1-7 Anatomical Terminology
•  Superficial Anatomy
•  Locating structures on or near the body surface
•  Anatomical Landmarks
•  Anatomical position: hands at sides, palms
forward
•  Supine: lying down, face up
•  Prone: lying down, face down
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1-7 Anatomical Terminology
•  Superficial Anatomy
•  Anatomical landmarks
•  References to palpable structures
•  Anatomical regions
•  Abdominopelvic quadrants
•  Abdominopelvic regions
•  Anatomical directions
•  Reference terms based on subject
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks (Part 1 of 2).
Frontal or
forehead
Nasal or nose
Ocular, orbital
or eye
Cranial
or skull
Cephalic or head
Facial
or face
Oral or mouth
Mental or chin
Buccal or cheek
Cervical or neck
Thoracic or
thorax, chest
Axillary or armpit
Mammary
or breast
Brachial
or arm
Abdominal
(abdomen)
Antecubital
or front of
elbow
Umbilical
or navel
a Anterior view
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Otic or ear
Trunk
Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks (Part 2 of 2).
Antebrachial
or forearm
Pelvic
(pelvis)
Trunk
Carpal or wrist
Palmar or palm
Manual
or hand
Digits
Pollex
(phalanges)
or thumb
or fingers (digital
or phalangeal)
Inguinal
or groin
Pubic
(pubis)
Patellar
or kneecap
Femoral
or thigh
Crural
or leg
Tarsal or
ankle
Digits (phalanges)
or toes (digital or
phalangeal)
Hallux or
great toe
Pedal
or foot
a Anterior view
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Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks (Part 1 of 2).
Cephalic
or head
Acromial or
shoulder
Dorsal or
back
Cervical
or neck
Olecranal
or back
of elbow
Upper
limb
b Posterior view
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Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks (Part 2 of 2).
Lumbar
or loin
Upper
limb
Gluteal
or buttock
Lower
limb
Popliteal or
back of knee
Sural
or calf
Calcaneal or
heal of foot
Plantar or
sole of foot
b Posterior view
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Figure 1-6a Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.
Right Upper
Quadrant
(RUQ)
Left Upper
Quadrant
(LUQ)
Right Lower
Quadrant
(RLQ)
Left Lower
Quadrant
(LLQ)
a Abdominopelvic quadrants. The four
abdominopelvic quadrants are formed by two
perpendicular lines that intersect at the navel. The
terms for these quadrants, or their abbreviations, are
most often used in clinical discussions.
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Figure 1-6b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.
Right
hypochondriac
region
Right lumbar
region
Right
inguinal
region
Epigastric
region
Left
hypochondriac
region
Umbilical
region
Left lumbar
region
Hypogastric
(pubic)
region
Left inguinal
region
b Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvic
regions provide more precise regional descriptions.
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Figure 1-6c Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.
Liver
Gallbladder
Stomach
Spleen
Large intestine
Small intestine
Appendix
Urinary
bladder
c Anatomical relationships. The relationship between
the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and the
locations of the internal organs are shown here.
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Figure 1-7 Directional References.
Superior: Above; at a higher level (in the human body, toward the head)
Right
Superior
The head is superior to the knee.
Cranial or Cephalic
Toward the head
Left
The cranial, or cephalic, border of
the pelvis is superior to the thigh.
Proximal
Toward an
attached base
The shoulder is
proximal to the
wrist.
Lateral
Away
from the
midline
Posterior or Dorsal
Posterior: The back
surface
Anterior or Ventral
Anterior: The front
surface
Dorsal: The back.
(equivalent to posterior
when referring to the
human body)
Ventral: The belly
side. (equivalent to
anterior when
referring to the human
body)
The umbilicus (navel)
is on the
anterior (or ventral)
surface of the trunk.
The scapula (shoulder
blade) is located
posterior
to the rib cage.
Medial
Toward
the
midline
Proximal
Caudal
Distal
Away from an
attached base
Toward the tail;
(coccyx in
humans)
The fingers are
distal to the
wrist.
The hips are
caudal to the
waist.
OTHER DIRECTIONAL TERMS
Superficial
Distal
At, near, or relatively close
to the body surface
The skin is superficial to
underlying structures.
Deep
Toward the interior of the
body; farther from the surface
a Anterior view
Inferior: Below; at a lower level; toward the feet
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The bone of the thigh is deep
to the surrounding skeletal
muscles.
The knee is inferior to the hip.
b Lateral view
Inferior
1-7 Anatomical Terminology
•  Sectional Anatomy
•  Planes and sections
•  Plane: a three-dimensional axis
•  Section: a slice parallel to a plane
•  Used to visualize internal organization and
structure
•  Important in radiological techniques
•  MRI
•  PET
•  CT
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Figure 1-8 Sectional Planes.
Sagittal plane
Frontal or coronal
plane
Plane is oriented parallel to
long axis
Plane is oriented
parallel to long axis
A sagittal section separates
right and left portions. You
examine a sagittal section,
but you section sagittally.
A frontal, or coronal,
section separates
anterior and
posterior portions of
the body. Coronal
usually refers to
sections passing
through the skull.
In a midsagittal section, the
plane passes through the
midline. It separates the
body into equal right and
left sides.
Directional term:
frontally or coronally
Midsagittal plane
A parasagittal section
misses the midline. It
separates the body into
unequal right and left sides.
Directional term: sagittally
Transverse, or
horizontal, plane
Plane is oriented
perpendicular to long axis
Frontal plane
Transverse plane
(inferior view)
A transverse, or cross,
section separates
superior and inferior
portions of the body.
Directional term:
transversely or horizontally
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1-8 Body Cavities
•  Essential Functions of Body Cavities
1.  Protect organs from accidental shocks
2.  Permit changes in size and shape of internal
organs
•  Ventral Body Cavity (Coelom)
•  Divided by the diaphragm
•  Thoracic cavity
•  Abdominopelvic cavity
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1-8 Body Cavities
•  Serous Membranes
•  Line body cavities and cover organs
•  Consist of parietal layer and visceral layer
•  Parietal layer — lines cavity
•  Visceral layer — covers organ
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1-8 Body Cavities
•  The Thoracic Cavity
•  Right and left pleural cavities
•  Contain right and left lungs
•  Mediastinum
•  Upper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea,
esophagus, and thymus
•  Lower portion contains pericardial cavity
•  The heart is located within the pericardial cavity
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Figure 1-9a Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Body Cavities of the Trunk.
POSTERIOR
ANTERIOR
Thoracic cavity
Pleural cavity
Pericardial cavity
Diaphragm
Abdominopelvic
cavity
Peritoneal cavity
Abdominal cavity
Pelvic cavity
a
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A lateral view showing the body cavities
of the trunk. The muscular diaphragm
subdivides them into a superior thoracic
cavity and an inferior abdominopelvic
cavity. Three of the four adult true body
cavities are shown and outlined in red;
only one of the two pleural cavities can
be shown in a sagittal section.
Figure 1-9b Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Body Cavities of the Trunk.
Visceral
pericardium
Heart
Pericardial
cavity
Parietal
pericardium
Air space
Balloon
b The heart projects into the pericardial cavity like a fist pushed
into a balloon. The attachment site, corresponding to the wrist
of the hand, lies at the connection between the heart and
major blood vessels. The width of the pericardial cavity is
exaggerated here; normally the visceral and parietal layers
are separated only by a thin layer of pericardial fluid.
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Figure 1-9c Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Body Cavities of the Trunk.
ANTERIOR
Pericardial
cavity
Pleural cavity
Parietal pleura
Heart
Right
lung
Left
lung
Mediastinum
Spinal cord
POSTERIOR
c A transverse section through the thoracic cavity, showing the central
location of the pericardial cavity. The mediastinum and pericardial cavity
lie between the two pleural cavities. Note that this transverse or crosssectional view is oriented as though the observer were standing at the
subject’s feet and looking toward the subject’s head. This inferior view of
a transverse section is the standard presentation for clinical images.
Unless otherwise noted, transverse or cross-sectional views in this text
use this same orientation (see Spotlight Figure 1-10).
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1-8 Body Cavities
•  The Abdominopelvic Cavity
•  Peritoneal cavity: chamber within abdominopelvic
cavity
•  Parietal peritoneum: lines the internal body wall
•  Visceral peritoneum: covers the organs
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1-8 Body Cavities
•  The Abdominopelvic Cavity
•  Abdominal cavity — superior portion
•  Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones
•  Contains digestive organs
•  Retroperitoneal space
•  Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to
muscular body wall
•  Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts of
the digestive tract
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1-8 Body Cavities
•  The Abdominopelvic Cavity
•  Pelvic cavity — inferior portion
•  Within pelvic bones
•  Contains reproductive organs, rectum, and bladder
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