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Learning
Classical and Operant Conditioning,
Cognitive-Social Learning,
Neuroscience and Evolution
Key Terms
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Learning—A relatively permanent change in
behavior or mental process as a result of
practice or experience
Conditioning—Learning associations between
environmental stimuli and behavioral
responses.
Classical Conditioning
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Classical Conditioning—Learning that occurs
when a neutral stimulus (NS) becomes paired
(associated) with an unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR)
(also known as respondent or Pavlovian
conditioning).
Unconditioned Stimulus-Response
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Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)—Stimulus that
elicits an unconditioned response (UCR)
without previous conditioning.
Unconditioned Response (UCR)—Unlearned
reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
that occurs without previous conditioning.
Neutral Stimulus (NS)—A stimulus that,
before conditioning, does not naturally bring
about the response of interest.
Conditioned Stimulus-Response
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)—Previously
neutral stimulus that, through repeated pairings
with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), now
causes a conditioned response (CR).
Conditioned Response (CR)—Learned
reaction to a conditioned stimulus (CS) that
occurs because of previous repeated pairings
with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
Ivan Pavlov
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Although his name is most often associated
with psychology and classical conditioning, he
won a Nobel Prize as a physiologist for his
study of the role of saliva in digestion.
Pavlov’s discovery and pursuit of classical
conditioning came as he began to think
critically about an observation made which
was really an interference with his primary
research.
John B. Watson
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In what would now be considered an unethical
experiment, Watson discovered that emotional
responses can also be conditioned through classical
means.
Conditioned Emotional Response (CER)—A
classically conditioned emotional response to a
previously neutral stimulus.
Watson’s experiment led to understanding of phobias.
He also founded the school of psychology known as
Behaviorism.
Principles of Classical Conditioning
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Generalization and Discrimination
Stimulus Generalization—Learned response
not only to the original stimulus but also to
other similar stimuli
 Stimulus Discrimination—Learned response
to a specific stimulus but not to other,
similar stimuli
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Principles of Classical Conditioning
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Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
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Extinction—Gradual weakening, or suppression of
a previously conditioned response (CR).
Spontaneous Recovery—Reappearance of a
previously extinguished conditioned response
(CR).
Higher-Order Conditioning—A neutral
stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus
(CS) through repeated pairings with a
previously conditioned stimulus (CS).
Applications of Classical
Conditioning
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Prejudice—the Clark Study in the 1930’s and
Powell-Hopson & Hopson in the 1980’s
illustrate how prejudice can be classically
conditioned through repeated pairings of
characteristics or traits with one group of
people.
Applications of Classical
Conditioning
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Phobias—through the application of Watson’s
experiment and understanding of conditioned
emotional responses (CER), we can understand
irrational fears and how to treat them.
Medical Treatments—classical conditioning
can be used to treat alcohol-dependent patients
by forming negative associations or to increase
success of treatment by forming positive
associations
Applications of Classical
Conditioning
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Advertising—John B. Watson proved that, if
you lose your job as a psychologist for
unethical behavior, you can always be
welcomed into the field of advertising 
Advertising pairs neutral stimuli (the product)
with positive conditioned stimuli (models, sex,
fun)
The reverse can also be true when creating
negative associations such as in political
advertising
Operant Conditioning
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Learning in which voluntary responses are
controlled by their consequences (also known
as instrumental or Skinnerian conditioning)
The organism performs a behavior that
produces an effect on the environment—
known as reinforcements
Reinforcement strengthens a response and
makes it more likely to occur
Operant Conditioning
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In operant conditioning the organism’s
response is active and voluntary vs. classical
conditioning where the response is passive and
involuntary.
Edward Thorndike—
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The Law of Effect—the probability of an action
being repeated is strengthened when followed by a
pleasant or satisfying consequence
B. F. Skinner
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Skinner emphasized external, observable
behavior. We can only know if something is a
reinforcement or punishment after the fact.
He developed the Skinner Box in which an
animal was trained to push a lever to receive a
food pellet.
From this basic apparatus, Skinner was able to
demonstrate a number of operant conditioning
principles.
Principles of Operant Conditioning
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Reinforcement—Primary and Secondary
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Primary reinforcers—stimuli that increase the
probability of a response because they satisfy a
biological need, such as food, water, and sex.
Secondary reinforcers—stimuli that increase the
probability of a response because of their learned
value, such as money and material possessions
Principles of Operant Conditioning
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Reinforcement—positive and negative
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Positive reinforcement—adding (or presenting) a
stimulus, which strengthens a response and makes
it more likely to recur
Negative reinforcement—taking away (or
removing) a stimulus, which strengthens a
response and makes it more likely to recur
Premack principle—using a naturally occurring
high-frequency response will reinforce and
increase low-frequency responses.
Principles of Operant Conditioning
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Schedules of Reinforcement
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Continuous reinforcement—Every correct
response is reinforced
Partial (Intermittent) reinforcement—some, but not
all, correct responses are reinforced
Partial Schedules of Reinforcement
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Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule—Reinforcement occurs
after a fixed (predetermined) number of responses.
Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule—Reinforcement
occurs unpredictably; the ratio (number or amount)
varies
Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule—Reinforcement occurs
after a fixed (predetermined) time has elapsed
Variable Interval (VI) Schedule—Reinforcement
occurs unpredictably; the interval (time) varies
Principles of Operant Conditioning
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Shaping—Reinforcement is delivered for
successive approximations of the desired
response
Punishment—
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Positive punishment—adding (or presenting) a
stimulus, which weakens a response and makes it
less likely to recur
Negative punishment—taking away (or removing)
a stimulus, which weakens a response and makes it
less likely to recur
Side Effects of Punishment
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Increased aggression
Passive aggression
Avoidance behavior
Modeling
Temporary suppression
Learned helplessness
Applications of Operant
Conditioning
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Prejudice—prejudice and discrimination can be
learned through positive reinforcement (positive
attention, acceptance by others, increase of selfesteem)—stimulus generalization may also play a
part as people may have had a punishing experience
with a member of a group.
Applications of Operant
Conditioning
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Biofeedback—a bodily function (such as blood
pressure, or heart rate) is recorded and the
information is fed back to an organism to increase
voluntary control over the bodily function
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Positive reinforcement (feedback is added as a way to
increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated)
Secondary reinforcer (the value we place on health)
Shaping (the information through data helps the organism
approximate the desired outcome)
Applications of Operant
Conditioning
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Superstition
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Behaviors get accidentally reinforced such that the
organism associates the reinforcement with the behavior.
Can also become conditioned through partial schedules of
reinforcement.
Cognitive-Social Learning
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Cognitive-Social Theory emphasizes the roles
of thinking and social learning in behavior.
Insight—sudden understanding of a problem
that implies the solution.
Cognitive Map—a mental image of a threedimensional space that an organism has
navigated.
Cognitive-Social Learning
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Latent Learning—hidden learning that exists
without behavioral signs.
Observational Learning—Learning new
behavior or information by watching others
(also known as social learning or modeling)
Neuroscience and Evolution
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Changes in biochemistry
The Brain—learning and memory create new
synaptic connections and changes in brain
structures
Evolution
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Biological Preparedness—Built-in (innate)
readiness to form associations between certain
stimuli and responses
Instinctive Drift—Conditioned responses shift
(or drift) back toward innate response patterns