Download Click www.ondix.com to visit our student-to

Click www.ondix.com to visit our student-to-student file sharing network.
Compare and contrast two psychological approaches
By Rory Simmons
My intention in this essay, is to compare and contrast the following psychological
approaches Behaviourism and Psychoanalysis, in doing this I will unpack the key points
of these two approaches, highlighting the differences and explaining them.
The first approach I will look at is Psychoanalysis; the most famous psychologist linked
to this is Sigmund Freud an Austrian psychologist who first proposed his Psychodynamic
approach. These perspectives states, that there are three main sections to the human
psyche. The first is the "ID" this is the natural drive, which seeks gratification constantly,
the second is the "EGO" this is our personal set of values developed as children, and
finally the "SUPEREGO" a set of learned values, taken from society and our parents
rules and values. Also he believed that as children we all go through five stages oral,
anal, phallic, genital, and latency. If the child is either under or over gratified in any one
of the stages then they will have problems in adulthood.
Another element of Freud's theories was his studies of dreams; Freud believed that
dreams acted as a form of fantasy, a defence mechanism against the unacceptable urges
of the id. Fantasy allows the individual to act out events in the imagination, which can
satiate the urges of the id, which are repressed. Freud theorized that dreams were a
subconscious manifestation of these repressed urges, and that they served mainly to
satisfy sexual and aggressive tendencies
The other theory I will refer to is Behaviourism; this is an approach, which states that all
psychology must be directly measurable and recordable, if it is to be regarded as
scientific. In his 1924 book Behaviourism, Watson made the notorious claim that, given a
dozen healthy infants; he could determine the adult personalities of each one, "regardless
of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and the race of his ancestors."
While making such a claim seems ridiculous today, at the time Watson was reacting to
emerging Freudian psychoanalytical theories of development, which many people found
threatening. Watson's scheme rejected the entire hidden, unconscious, and suppressed
longings that Freudians attributed to behaviours and posited that humans respond to
punishments and rewards. Behaviour that creates positive responses is reinforced and
continued, while behaviour that creates negative responses is eliminated.
After both of these psychologists came other expanding on their theories, psychologists
like Pavlov and Skinner expanded Watson's theories and Psychologists like Jung and
Adler expanded Freud's.
An important component of many psychological theories in the late nineteenth century,
including psychoanalysis was "introspection", the study of the mind by analysis of one's
own thought processes. It was in reaction to this trend that behaviourism arose, claiming
that the causes of behaviour were not founded in the mind, but rather that they were the
results of conditioning and responses to stimulus. Behavioural theorists emphasize that
behaviour is a result of a process of learning from observing. What actions pay off and
what works. This theory simplifies human behaviour by neglecting the many other
influences on us, many of which are vital to the psychoanalytic theory. In direct conflict
psychoanalysis uses introspection as the basis for all theory stating that behaviour is
caused by childhood experiences, to quote Freud "the boy is father to the man".
Another difference is found when you look at research methods. Psychoanalysis is based
around introspection and as such has very little research, due to the fact that the theory
has very little testable data, it can neither truly be proved nor disproved. Behaviourism
tested and researched ideas before they were published, all of the research was directly
observable and and testable, this was due to the basic aim of behaviourism, which is to
produce analysable and scientific results.
The research done by the approaches differ as much as who they are studying
behaviourism focuses all of its attentions upon animals and how their behaviour equates
to human behaviour. The reasons for this focus of experimentation was stated by theories
being made on the evolution of creatures scientists such as Charles Darwin were stating
that all life found on earth descended from basic organisms, due to this behaviourists of
the period believed that any reaction from a animal could be observed in humans as all
creatures "evolve" from one another.
The techniques used for Freud's research, were based around introspectional research into
members of the public, the problem however was that Freud lived in a place where the
only willing volunteers for research were Jewish housewives, as such Freud's research
can be critised as it focused mainly on one (extend)
As time has gone by both of these theories have received critism from various sources,
and their views have been expanded and changed by psychologists who came after them.
Since Freud first described his psychodynamic theory, Freud and his psychoanalytic
theory have faced intense criticism. His most famous critic is Jung, a former college.
Jung started to disagree with Freud in 1913 over many of the key of issues to the theory,
including amongst other points, Freud's emphasis on children's sexuality and its
importance in early development. Jung had a different view of the construction of human
personality, for instance, and had different ideas about how dreams should be interpreted
and viewed as part of psychoanalysis, dreams of course being very important to the study
of Psychoanalysis; they were seen as to quote Freud " a window to the subconscious".
Alfred Adler, another college of Freud, also disagreed with the masters view of childhood
sexuality, instead he believed that infants and children are driven mainly by a need for
acceptance and praise rather than sexual gratification. In modern times, Freud has been
the target of criticism from many corners. Feminists especially criticize his understanding
of "hysteria" and his theory of Oedipal conflict, they deny that a child would think and
seek to act in this way.
Basically the main criticisms of Freud's theory are that it is based too much in studying
sexual urges and the need for gratification. Also many people believe that Freud had no
real proof for his theories and they were too much based around introspection. His
theories have been expanded and criticised by his peers, Jung, Adler ECT, and their
theories although still psychoanalytic list the influences on behaviour as society and a
persons environment.
Much of the research done in Behaviourism was done prior to john Watson championing
the term "Behaviourism" in his 1924 book.
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) initially proposed that humans and animals learn
behaviours through the association of stimuli and responses. He stated two laws of
learning to explain why behaviour occurs the way that it does: The Law of Effect
specifies that any time a behaviour is followed by a pleasant outcome, that behaviour is
likely to recur. The Law of Exercise states that the more a stimulus is connected with a
response, the stronger the link between the two.
Ivan Pavlov's (1849-1936) carried on work on classical conditioning also he provided an
observable way to study behaviour. Although most psychologists agree that neither
Thorndike nor Pavlov were strict behaviourists, their work paved the way for the
emergence of behaviourism.
Later the behaviourist approach was taken up by B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) who worked
out the evolution of human behaviour by observing the behaviour of rats in a maze,
where certain actions lead to different consequences In the 1950s, however, the
popularity of behaviourism began to decline.
Behaviourism is very difficult to crititse as unlike other approaches the data is not open to
interpretation. As such the theory has received very little crititsm over the years.
One of the main critisms was made by Noam Chomsky (1928), an expert in speach, who
demonstrated that the behaviourist approach simply could not explain the way a child
picks up its native language. Today, many psychologists debate the extent to which
cognitive learning and behavioural learning affect the development of personality. Also
much of the research done by behaviourists would not be possible in the present day as
the general public are much more aware of issues of cruelty to animals.
Both of these theories have one key element, which is shared. Namely both have inspired
and been the basis of therapies, which are still used to aid a variety of problems.
From psychoanalysis, psychotherapy grew. Psychotherapy is a way of treating
psychological or emotional problems, through talking both about the issue and about
other issues. The main focus is to talk the patient through their experience hoping to
discover the personal feelings, relationships, and events that have created their vegetative
behaviour. Freud first used this therapy whilst living in Austria where he was a practicing
physician specializing in neurological disorders. When Freud could find no physical
cause for an illness, he would experiment with this new therapy and in this way he found
it extremely useful. It is now used widely across the world and is even a recommended
treatment in the NHS.
Behaviourism has led to other therapies, mainly treatment for phobias. Classical
conditioning is also the basis for different types of fears or phobia, which can occur
through a process called stimulus generalization (a child who has a bad experience with a
particular dog may learn to fear all dogs). Although classical conditioning is the cause of
many phobias, classical conditioning can also help eliminate them through a variety of
therapeutic techniques. One is "systematic desensitisation", in which an anxietyproducing stimulus is linked with a positive response. The opposite result (making a
desirable stimulus unpleasant) is obtained through "aversion conditioning" therapy, in
which a behaviour that a person wants to stop e.g. an addiction, such as alcoholism is
paired with an unpleasant stimulus, such as a nausea-producing drug.
So in conclusion, no one theory can be proven either correct or incorrect, as elements of
each are useful and effective in modern life. Psychologists will constantly expand these
theories and critism will continue, for as long as the debate rages on.
WORD COUNT : 1,661
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Psychology for A level by Mike Cardwell, Liz Clark and Claire Meldrum (2000)
Gale Encyclopaedia of Childhood " Adolescence. Gale Research, 1998.
Rachlin, Howard. Introduction to Modern Behaviourism. 3rd ed. New York: Freeman,
1991
Lieberman, David A. Learning: Behavior and Cognition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Publishing Co., 1990.
Gale Encyclopaedia of Psychology. Gale Research, 1998.
Blackman, Derek E. Operant Conditioning: An Experimental Analysis of Behaviour.
London: Methuen, 1974.
Keywords:
compare contrast psychological approaches rory simmons intention this essay compare
contrast following psychological approaches behaviourism psychoanalysis doing this will
unpack points these approaches highlighting differences explaining them first approach
will look psychoanalysis most famous psychologist linked this sigmund freud austrian
psychologist first proposed psychodynamic approach these perspectives states that there
three main sections human psyche first natural drive which seeks gratification constantly
second personal values developed children finally superego learned values taken from
society parents rules values also believed that children through five stages oral anal
phallic genital latency child either under over gratified stages then they will have
problems adulthood another element freud theories studies dreams freud believed that
dreams acted form fantasy defence mechanism against unacceptable urges fantasy allows
individual events imagination which satiate urges which repressed theorized dreams were
subconscious manifestation these repressed urges they served mainly satisfy sexual
aggressive tendencies other theory refer behaviourism approach states psychology must
directly measurable recordable regarded scientific book behaviourism watson made
notorious claim given dozen healthy infants could determine adult personalities each
regardless talents penchants tendencies abilities vocations race ancestors while making
such claim seems ridiculous today time watson reacting emerging freudian
psychoanalytical theories development many people found threatening watson scheme
rejected entire hidden unconscious suppressed longings freudians attributed behaviours
posited humans respond punishments rewards behaviour creates positive responses
reinforced continued while behaviour creates negative responses eliminated after both
psychologists came other expanding their theories psychologists like pavlov skinner
expanded psychologists like jung adler expanded important component many
psychological late nineteenth century including psychoanalysis introspection study mind
analysis thought processes reaction trend arose claiming causes behaviour were founded
mind rather they were results conditioning responses stimulus behavioural theorists
emphasize result process learning from observing what actions what works theory
simplifies human neglecting many other influences vital psychoanalytic theory direct
conflict uses introspection basis stating caused childhood experiences quote father
another difference found when look research methods based around introspection such
very little research fact very little testable data neither truly proved disproved tested
researched ideas before published research directly observable testable basic produce
analysable scientific results done differ much studying focuses attentions upon animals
their equates human reasons focus experimentation stated being made evolution creatures
scientists such charles darwin stating life found earth descended from basic organisms
behaviourists period believed reaction animal could observed humans creatures evolve
another techniques used based around introspectional into members public problem
however lived place where only willing volunteers jewish housewives critised focused
mainly extend time gone both have received critism various sources their views have
been expanded changed came after them since described psychodynamic psychoanalytic
faced intense criticism most famous critic jung former college jung started disagree with
over issues including amongst points emphasis children sexuality importance early
development different view construction personality instance different ideas about should
interpreted viewed part course being very important study seen quote window
subconscious alfred adler college also disagreed with masters view childhood sexuality
instead infants driven mainly need acceptance praise rather than sexual gratification
modern times been target criticism corners feminists especially criticize understanding
hysteria oedipal conflict deny child would think seek basically main criticisms based
much studying sexual need gratification also people believe real proof much around been
criticised peers adler although still psychoanalytic list influences society persons
environment done done prior john championing term book edward thorndike initially
proposed humans animals learn behaviours through association stimuli stated laws
learning explain occurs does effect specifies time followed pleasant outcome likely recur
exercise states more stimulus connected with response stronger link between ivan pavlov
carried work classical conditioning provided observable study although most agree
neither thorndike pavlov strict behaviourists work paved emergence later behaviourist
taken skinner worked evolution observing rats maze where certain actions lead different
consequences however popularity began decline difficult crititse unlike data open
interpretation received little crititsm over years main critisms made noam chomsky expert
speach demonstrated behaviourist simply could explain child picks native language today
debate extent cognitive learning behavioural affect development personality behaviourists
would possible present general public more aware issues cruelty animals both element
shared namely inspired basis therapies still used variety problems psychotherapy grew
psychotherapy treating emotional problems through talking about issue about issues focus
talk patient experience hoping discover personal feelings relationships events created
vegetative used therapy whilst living austria where practicing physician specializing
neurological disorders when find physical cause illness would experiment therapy
extremely useful widely across world even recommended treatment therapies treatment
phobias classical conditioning basis types fears phobia occur process called stimulus
generalization experience particular learn fear dogs although classical cause phobias help
eliminate them variety therapeutic techniques systematic desensitisation anxiety
producing linked positive response opposite result making desirable unpleasant obtained
aversion therapy person wants stop addiction alcoholism paired unpleasant nausea
producing drug conclusion proven either correct incorrect elements each useful effective
modern life constantly expand critism continue long debate rages word count
bibliography psychology level mike cardwell clark claire meldrum gale encyclopaedia
childhood adolescence gale rachlin howard introduction modern york freeman lieberman
david behavior cognition belmont wadsworth publishing gale encyclopaedia psychology
blackman derek operant experimental analysis london methuen
Keywords General:
Essay, essays, termpaper, term paper, termpapers, term papers, book reports, study,
college, thesis, dessertation, test answers, free research, book research, study help,
download essay, download term papers