Download UNIVERSITY OF WALES INSTITUTE, CARDIFF Athrofa Prifysgol

NAME: PHILIPPA GENT
STUDENT NUMBER: 08003499
SCHOOL OF SPORT: SPORT MANAGEMENT
UNIVERSITY OF WALES INSTITUTE CARDIFF
How Effective are Celebrity Athlete Endorsers in Promoting Football Boots in the UK
and Does Credibility Influence Effectiveness?
UNIVERSITY OF WALES INSTITUTE, CARDIFF
Athrofa Prifysgol Cymru, Caerdydd
Certificate of student
I certify that the whole of this work is the result of my individual effort, that all
quotations from books and journals have been acknowledged, and that the word
count given below is a true and accurate record of the words contained (omitting
contents pages, acknowledgements, indexes, figures, reference list and appendices).
Word count:
11, 937
Signed:
P. Gent
Date:
16/03/11
Certificate of Dissertation Tutor responsible
I am satisfied that this work is the result of the student’s own effort.
Signed:
Date:
Notes:
The University owns the right to reprint all or part of this document.
Contents Page
Page No.
List of Tables
List of Figures
Acknowledgements
i
Abstract
ii
CHAPTER ONE: Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1
CHAPTER TWO: Review of Literature
2.1 Marketing
3
2.2 Marketing in Sport
4
2.3 Celebrity Athlete Endorsement
7
2.4 Credibility of Athlete Endorsers
9
2.5 Celebrity Athlete Endorsers in Football
12
2.6 Rationale
14
CHAPTER THREE: Methodology
3.1 Introduction
15
3.2 Design
16
3.3 Participants
17
3.4 Procedure
18
3.5 Pilot Study
18
3.6 Data Analysis
19
3.7 Validity and Reliability
19
3.8 Ethical Considerations
21
3.9 Limitations
21
CHAPTER FOUR: Results
4.1 Results
22
CHAPTER FIVE: Discussion
5.1 Knowledge of Endorsers in Football
36
5.2 The Effect of Endorsement on Purchase Intentions
37
5.3 Can Endorsement Merit Price?
39
5.4 Effectiveness of Athlete Endorsement
39
5.5 The Effect of Negative Media Exposure on Endorsement
41
CHAPTER SIX: Conclusion
6.1 Conclusion
43
6.2 Practical Implications for Marketers
44
6.3 Recommendations for Future Research
45
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
List of Tables
Page No.
Table 1: Age and sex of the sample.
22
Table 2: Athlete identification and gender.
23
Table 3: How much more consumers are willing to pay and gender.
28
Table 4: David Beckham’s associations with negative media
33
exposure and most recognised endorser in football.
Table 5: The effect of negative media on purchasing patterns and
Trustworthiness.
___
34
List of Figures
Page No.
Figure 1: Products and services associated with David Beckham
24
Figure 2: Products and services associated with David Beckham
24
and gender
Figure 3: Reasons for the purchasing of endorsed products and
25
services.
Figure 4: Reasons for the purchase of endorsed football boots.
27
Figure 5: Pay more for endorsed football boots and gender
27
Figure 6: Most effective methods of marketing football boots and
29
gender
Figure 7: The most effective advertising medium and gender.
31
Figure 8: Wayne Rooney’s negative media exposure and gender.
32
Figure 9: The effect of negative media on purchasing patterns and
33
gender
Figure 10: The important of trustworthiness and the effect of
_
negative media on purchasing patterns.
Figure 11: The reason why negative media attention affects
__
34
purchasing patterns and gender.
35
Acknowledgements
I would like to take this opportunity to express my thanks and gratitude to my
dissertation supervisor Bev Smith for her guidance and support throughout this
research project. Secondly, I would like to show appreciation to all respondents who
took the time to be involved in my study. Finally, I would like to thank my parents for
their financial support and patience during this investigation.
i
Abstract
The aim of this research project was to establish whether celebrity athlete endorsers
make an effective advertising medium for football boots. It also aimed to find out
whether the credibility of the endorser had an impact on this effectiveness, and how
negative media associations with an athlete endorser may change purchasing
behaviour. This is because it was found that there was a lack of research on the
effectiveness of sport related products and in particular those related to football.
The data was gathered through a mixed method approach which involved the use of
questionnaires. The questionnaires were distributed to a sample of football playing
students at the University of Wales Institute Cardiff (UWIC) and contained a blend of
open and closed questions.
It was found that consumers are positively affected by the use of athlete endorsers to
promote football boots in the UK. This is mainly because the endorsing player was
seen as a role model/ sporting hero and was well respected. It was also found that
the credibility of the endorser is an important attribute and negative associations in
the media would influence the purchasing patterns of consumers.
It was concluded that marketers of football boots would benefit from the use of
athlete endorsers, and the increased cost of hiring such an athlete can be justified
through customers being prepared to pay more for the product and increasing its
awareness. However, there was the potential to utilise focus groups and interviews to
allow areas of interest to be expanded upon and gain further insight into consumer
views of celebrity athlete endorsers
ii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Marketing can spell the difference between success and failure to all types of
organisations, from big or small to profit or not-for-profit which consequently makes it
one of the most important types of business activity that an organisation will
undertake (Stevens & Loudon, 2006). It is concerned with actively trying to create
and keep customers though the creation and maintenance of mutually satisfying
exchange relationships (Baker et al., 1998). This is important in the current heavily
saturated marketplace as it can be used to separate and differentiate products from
the competition (Miller, 2010).
Marketing shows particular significance in the sports industry as it allows sporting
organisations to engage in product development and build market (Shilbury et al.,
2009). This can be done by using an extremely marketable commodity such as
celebrity athlete endorsers to promote a product or service (Jones & Schumann,
2004). The use of a celebrity athlete endorser involves a famous sporting face being
associated with the promotion and use of a particular product and therefore giving it
their stamp of approval (Lipsy, 2006). The use of a famous face in an advertisement
can help boost viewer recall and can help build a recognisable image for a company
or its products; this can then add value to the brand as well as creating an emotional
bond with consumers (Bradley, 1996).
Celebrity athlete endorsers particularly prevail in football with large amounts of
advertising and commercial opportunities due to it being the most popular sport on
television (Torkildsen, 2005). This can be seen with the likes of football players such
as David Beckham and Wayne Rooney being linked with numerous endorsement
contracts which are typically associated with products such as football boots
(Pedersen et al., 2007). However, it is hard to measure the success of an athlete
endorser in terms of sales or revenues generated, but organisations still believe that
associations with athletes will enhance the image of their product (Oneal et al.,
1987). Furthermore, it is also difficult to determine the extent to which negative
publicity affects consumer attitudes towards the endorser. This makes athlete
1
selection important as companies cannot control the actions of athlete endorsers and
any negative publicity received by the endorser may be reflected on the organisation
(Duncan, 2004).
This therefore leads to the possibility of investigating the effectiveness of athlete
endorsers at promoting products such as football boots. It also presents the
opportunity to investigate whether negative media associations can affect their
effectiveness, and has resulted in the following objectives being derived.
1. The research will try to determine the effect celebrity athlete football boot
endorsers have on the purchase behaviours of a sample of football players,
(therefore determining the success of endorsement as a marketing strategy).
2. The study will also attempt to establish consumers are influenced by celebrity
athlete endorsers.
3. The research will also address the importance of credibility and what makes a
football boot endorser credible.
4. Ultimately, the investigation will endeavour to find out the effect that negative
media associations with the endorser can have on consumer purchase
intentions.
2
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.0 Review of Literature
2.1 Marketing
Marketing is an important tool in business and has been in existence for a long
period of time (Mercer, 1996). The dependence on marketing came from a change in
management philosophy that consisted of a shift from the seller’s market of more
buyers than goods, to the buyer’s market of more goods than customers (Boone et
al., 2010). For this reason it became essential to market products to make them sell
and explains why approximately fifty percent of total expenditure on products is
marketing costs (Boone et al., 2010). The term marketing has been defined by Pride
and Ferrell (2010) as satisfying exchange relationships with customers in addition to
developing and maintaining favourable relationships with stakeholders in a dynamic
environment by creating, distributing, promoting and pricing goods, services and
ideas. In other words, marketing is a management process which must satisfy
customer needs by identifying and anticipating their requirement efficiently and
profitably (Becherel & Vellas, 1999). It is however important to note that profitability is
not the main outcome of marketing because marketing approaches are widely used
by other organisations where profit is not the main focus (Blythe, 2008). This is
specifically true for the marketing of sports events such as charitable walks, runs and
cycles, but this research project will focus on the marketing of products where the
primary goal is to make a profit (Graham et al., 2001).
The main objective of marketing is to attract new customers and grow current
customers by promising superior value in addition to delivering satisfaction
(Armstrong & Kotler, 2009). This therefore emphasises the need to focus on
customer needs and wants by providing good products at an acceptable price to gain
and retain consumers (Blythe, 2008). Nevertheless there is popular belief that
marketing is about cheating people by persuading them to buy things they don’t want
or need (Blythe, 2008). In actual fact marketing is used to gain competitive advantage
over competitors by persuading consumers to buy certain goods thus giving the
organisation an edge over similar products and services (Sahaf, 2008). Subsequently
the marketer must communicate the sales points needed to attract and retain
customers through means such as advertising (Mercer, 1996). While this is true it is
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also important to add that marketing is not just advertising and personal selling. It
involves creating and maintaining relationships with suppliers and customers to
design and produce goods and services which meet consumer needs and wants
(Boone et al., 2010). This is particularly prevalent in the sports industry as customers
must carefully choose which products and services they want to spend their financial
resources and limited time on; meaning marketers must assess consumer demand,
the competition and financial valuation of products to ensure theirs will purchased
ahead of the rivalry (Kaser & Oelkers, 2008). The use of marketing in sport will be
discussed in more detail in the next section of the literature review.
2.2 Marketing in Sport
Sport business has experienced phenomenal growth over the last 30 years resulting
in it being one of the largest and diverse industries in the world (DeSchriver &
Mahony, 2010). This certainly seems to be the case as Broughton et al. (1999)
estimated the sports industry to be worth $213 billion in the United States alone.
While the size of the sports industry in other countries is not as well researched
Gratton (2002) estimated that consumer spending on sport in the UK reached £15.2
billion. This demonstrates an overall market increase of 70% in the UK and a
staggering 238% increase in the US compared the comparative figures 10 years
previously (Slack, 2004). However it is hard to determine how accurate these figures
are because of the size and diversity of the sports industry, but does give a guide to
the magnitude of this expanding business (Pitts & Stotlar, 2007).
The size of the expanding industry along with the creation of new consumption
opportunities and the adoption of new technologies has consequently resulted in the
sport marketing industry being propelled into new levels of popularity (Milne &
McDonald, 1999). Furthermore, the use of sport alone is now not enough to market
products and services in this increasingly competitive marketplace, there is now the
need to understand the uniqueness of sport to develop cutting edge marketing
concepts (Irwin et al., 2008). A number of sports marketing definitions have been
developed in literature (Parkhouse, 1996; Pitts & Stotlar, 2007) but a these definitions
4
broadly describe sport marketing. The definition presented by Mullin et al. (2007)
suggested that sport marketing consists of exchange processes designed to meet the
needs and wants of the sport consumer. Sport marketing has two main directions: the
marketing of consumer industrial products or services through the use of sports
programmes, and the marketing of sports products and services directly to consume
sport (Mullin et al., 2007). Nevertheless, Mullin et al. (2007) suggested that there has
been greater emphasis on the selling of goods and services as opposed to identifying
and satisfying the needs and wants of the consumer.
It is now impossible for the consumer to avoid sport marketing communication
methods such as billboards, advertisements and newspapers, exposing big names
that are becoming synonymous with sport marketing such as David Beckham, Anna
Kournikova, Nike, Vodaphone and Manchester United (Beech & Chadwick, 2007).
The fact that the media are anxious to give wide exposure to the general sport
product, and the opportunity for revenue to be generated through associations with
business and industry are essential in sport marketing due to the highly competitive
marketplace and a much smaller promotional budget than other industries, not to
mention the limited direct control over the marketing mix (Mullin et al., 2007).
The sports business industry is made up of many different segments which need to
be marketed differently such as sport tourism, sport recreation, professional sports,
sporting goods and so on (Pitts & Stotlar, 2007). The segments are very much
interlinked with people’s interests being fuelled in sport and recreational activities by
the selling of sporting goods and equipment; the sporting goods industry is also one
of the largest segments due to the need for equipment and apparel to take part in
most sporting activities (Pitts & Stotlar, 2007). Furthermore, different people are
looking for different things from the sport product such as the performance features
associated with the product while another might identify with the athlete who
endorses the product, or as a fashion statement (Milne & McDonald, 1999).
5
The increasingly competitive nature of the industry means organisations must
concentrate on promotion to persuade consumers to purchase their product instead
of anyone else’s (Gerrard, 2006). This can be done through means such as
differentiation by the concept of branding; the brand can be created or retained
through product elements in the names, designs, marks or images (Garland &
Ferkins, 2006). For example the Nike ‘swoosh’ has rapidly gained an identification
level that rivals the coca cola icon, as well as developing special product brands such
as Air Jordan (Goldman & Papson, 1998). However it is also important to remember
that the product elements such as brand names and logos only serve as a
preliminary step for brand management and simply act as a prompt for feelings and
attitudes towards the sport organisation (Mullin et al., 2007). Once a brand has been
established it is likely that brand awareness can then be achieved which will increase
the ease by which a brand name will be recalled, in addition to increasing the
likeliness that the brand will be considered by consumers (Keller, 1993).
Brand awareness can be impacted through methods such as sponsorship by
reminding consumers about the brand thus increasing the brands presence to
consumers (Roy, 2005). Sponsorship refers to providing funds, resources or services
to a sport event or organisation in return for rights and an association that may be
used for commercial advantage (Milne & McDonald, 1999). There are lots of
sponsorship opportunities in sport today due to the magnitude of events,
organisations and athletes with companies willing to pay millions to advertise during
televised sports events or sponsor the event itself to reach certain markets (Pitts &
Stotlar, 2007). Nevertheless, sponsorship is very expensive and the increased brand
awareness peaks during the sponsorship process and falls rapidly afterwards; it also
tends to focus on quick returns on investment instead of long term investments in
research and relationship marketing (Ferrand et al., 2007). One of the alternatives to
sport sponsorship is to form brand associations with the players themselves known
as endorsements which involves a famous sporting face being linked with the product
(Mullin et al., 2007). The next section of the literature review will consider celebrity
athlete endorsement in more detail and address their effectiveness.
6
2.3 Celebrity Athlete Endorsement
Celebrity athlete endorsers have been used to promote both sport and non-sporting
products for a number of years. This certainly seems to be the case as Sugar (1978)
suggested that the first record of an athlete endorsing a product occurred on
September 1, 1905, when the baseball player Honas Wagner had his name printed
on baseball bats for a charge of $75. Subsequently athletes endorse products more
often than any other celebrity category such as musicians and actors (Carlson &
Donavan, 2008). The term celebrity sport endorser has been defined by Freidman
and Freidman (1979) as a well known celebrity athlete who helps a company to sell
or enhance the image of the company, products, or brand with the use of his or her
fame. Bush et al. (2004) suggested that celebrity endorsers have been proven to
positively affect the marketing and brand loyalty of products. Through the creation of
brand loyalty, a consumer will willingly pay price premiums compared with otherwise
equivalent products (Holt, 2004). With the creation of a brand, products can be easily
identifiable and differentiated from competing products therefore making the use of
celebrity endorsers important to do this effectively (Naik & Reddy, 1999).
According to Brooks (1998), celebrity endorsers can assume one product
endorsement style or a combination of several. These include the explicit mode in
which the celebrity endorses that product. Subsequently followed by the implicit
mode where the celebrity uses the product. Then followed by the imperative mode
where the celebrity tells the consumer that they should use the product. Finally, the
co-present mode where the athlete simply appears in the same setting as the
product. These different styles have been used in sport, for example Nike hired
Michael Jordan to create a new Air Jordan brand which he promoted (Masteralexis et
al., 2005). This is an example of the explicit mode and resulted in the most
successful athlete endorsement strategy in history with over $100 million of Air
Jordan products sold in a single year (Strasser & Beckland, 1991). However
companies must be careful about choosing their celebrity endorser as the company’s
image may be tarnished if the endorser they use gains a bad reputation (Beech &
Chadwick, 2007). For example Converse signed Dennis Rodman to endorse their
athletic shoes but a feud during a nationally broadcast game resulted in Converse
7
dissolving the contract early because of negative public perceptions (Kaser &
Oelkers, 2008).
The size and magnitude of the industry can be emphasized with coaches, athletes
and sports personalities being paid $897 million by US companies to endorse their
goods and services in 2001 (Sports Business Journal, 2004). This is in addition to the
$10 billion spent after signing these athletes to promote their association with them
(Boyd & Shank, 2004). Nevertheless, companies are still willing to utilise athlete
endorsers even though many organisations have indicated a diminishing return on
investment when using expensive athlete endorsers. (Pedersen et al., 2007).
Furthermore, a study carried out by Tripp et al. (1994) found that multiple
endorsements by a celebrity can negatively affects consumer perceptions of that
celebrity. Even so, the high profile and wide recognition of celebrities in general are
perceived as more credible than non-celebrity endorsers, leading to greater impact
on purchase intent and brand attitudes (Kamins & Gupta, 1994). There has
particularly been an increase in the use of endorsement as an advertising and
promotional tool over the last couple of decades (Pitts & Stotlar, 2007). It is also
important to consider that an appropriate endorser for one brand may be wrong for
another based on the public’s perception of their image (McCracken , 1989). For
instance, the research carried out by Simmers et al. (2009) suggested that athletes
only known for their sporting ability like Rafael Nadal could only be used to endorse
products relating to their sport such as tennis rackets. However, this notion can be
challenged as Rafeal Nadal and Rodger Federer are currently endorsers for Nike, in
addition to Rodger Federer being an endorser for the global campaign by Gillette
entitled ‘Champions’ (Chadwick, 2008).
The research carried out by Shuart (2007) investigated the effectiveness of
celebrities in making consumers buy a product. The study involved a sample of 120
college students which included 60 males and 60 females. The method utilised a
qualitative questionnaire and a likert scale in which the celebrity and hero status of
top named athletes was assessed in relation to the impact on purchasing patterns.
The results indicated that someone known as a hero or a celebrity is proven to be the
8
most successful spokesperson for a product due to the media coverage that celebrity
obtains. The research also showed that men are more likely to be influenced by
endorsed products which challenges the notion held by Bush et al. (2004) that
females are more influenced. However, this could be due to much of sports
advertising on television being aimed at men because more men watch sport
according to Aitchison (2003). Furthermore, his research only focussed on the
effectiveness of a celebrity to promote one product, so therefore the results may have
just represented the popularity and credibility of those endorsers rather than their
ability to promote the product.
2.4 Credibility of Athlete Endorsers
Athletes are able to demand large sums of money to endorse products due to their
universal popularity and clean images (Boyd & Shank, 2004). They are then able to
capture media attention thus raising awareness of the product and brand in addition
to providing differentiation from competitors (Beech & Chadwick, 2007). Boyd &
Shank (2004) suggested that the more credible the athlete, then the greater
persuasive message they can pass onto the target audience. The credibility of an
athlete can be divided into three distinct dimensions including, expertise,
trustworthiness and attractiveness (Ohanian, 1990).
The expertise of an athlete is linked with their knowledge of the product and if their
success could be directly related to that product, for example Roger Federer’s
expertise about tennis rackets would be accepted but not automobiles (Ruihley et al.,
2010). Subsequently, the trustworthiness of an athlete relates to the athlete providing
information in an objective and honest manner to increase consumer confidence;
however a later study found that trustworthiness had a major impact on purchase
intentions (Ohanian, 1991). Ultimately, the attractiveness of an endorser includes the
use of their physical appearance to enhance the consumer’s perceptions of the
advertisement
(Caballero
&
Pride,
1984).
However,
consumers
perceive
attractiveness differently and highly attractive models are not always effective for
attractiveness related products, due to the premise that they have never faced
9
problems so have little expertise using the product (Bower & Landreth, 2001). This
doesn’t seem to be the case as Anna Kournikova has not won a singles tournament
since turning pro in 2005 but still gets numerous endorsement deals (Janoff, 2008).
It is also important to remember that these three sections can make individual
contributions to effectiveness; for instance, Dennis Rodman may be seen as a firstrate source of information about basketball shoes, but his attractiveness and
trustworthiness could be questioned (Weiner & Mowen, 1985).
Companies have to be careful about their choice of endorser because if the athlete’s
credibility gets damaged then the advertiser’s image could be affected by association
with that athlete (Beech & Chadwick, 2007). This has caused companies to now see
endorsers as high risk marketing strategies (Alsmandi, 2006). This certainly seems to
be the case since several well-know figures have lost endorsement contracts due to
misconduct (Burton et al., 2000). For example Hertz quickly disassociated
themselves from NHL player O.J. Simpson after speculation that he may have been
involved in the murder of his wife (Kellner, 2004). Furthermore, Kelloggs dropped
Michael Phelps as an endorser after the publication of a photo showing him smoking
marijuana (Chi-Chu, 2009).
More recently were the events surrounding golfer Tiger Woods in 2009; Stone et al.
(2003) had previously stated that Woods was the model professional athlete. This
made him the most successful athlete endorser in the world in 2009 with his earnings
from endorsements reaching $110 million (Badenhausen, 2010). However, during
late 2009 he was exposed as having been unfaithful to his wife and marketers began
disassociating themselves from him (Vranica, 2009). The companies who endorsed
Woods have responded in a varied fashion with Gillette, Accenture, Gatorade, and
AT&T dropping him completely (Vranica, 2009). Whereas Nike have decided to stick
by him (Ruihley et al., 2010). Furthermore, Because of the large amount of money
spent by companies to link themselves with Woods over the years, it is too early to
tell if he will be affected for a long period of time by this situation and if he can
eventually win back his fans and endorsement contracts (Ruihley et al., 2010).
10
On the other hand some marketers even see negative media attention as advertising
potential (Enrico, 1995). They believe controversial athletes can become valuable
endorsers to target challenges such as marketing to the youth (Burton et al., 2000).
For example, Reebok possess a 10 year $50 million contract with NBA star Allen
Iverson even though he was an ex convict and had a controversial rap recording
(Ruihley et al., 2010).
The effectiveness of the credibility of the endorser and attitudes towards the product
has been researched by Yeung-Jo and June-Hee (2007). The investigation involved
a sample of 60 Korean undergraduate students including 30 males and 30 females.
A seven-point semantic differential scale was used to assess the effectiveness of
compatibility, credibility, attractiveness and attitudes towards the product. A second
experiment was then conducted on 104 Korean undergraduate students which
involved 52 males and 52 females. The method was similar to the first experiment but
assessed the congruence and compatibility of a celebrity athlete endorser and the
endorsed product. The results found that endorsers are more effective when there is
a corresponding association between the endorser and the product. The findings of
the investigation also showed that credibility and attractiveness of the endorser was
an important feature and had a significant effect on the success of the endorser,
particularly in non sport related products. Nevertheless, the study was undertaken at
a university in Korea so the finding may only represent their cultural context. Also, the
results only represented print advertisements, so the findings may not be relevant to
other types of media such as television.
This research is further emphasised by the work of Ruihley et al. (2010) who
replicated and extended the study carried out by Stone et al. (2003) to assess
whether the use of celebrity endorsers has decreased over time due to the negative
off-field issues. The study used a content analysis of the advertisements in the Sports
Illustrated magazine, and analysed 12 issues per year for six years. Their findings
contradicted the predictions of Stone et al. (2003) by concluding that the use of
celebrity athlete endorsers is increasing even though credibility has been affected by
the off court/field behaviour of athletes. They also found growing opportunities for
11
female and African-American athletes in recent years. However, the research was
only gathered from one magazine so may not have represented the market as a
whole. Again the use of print media only might have meant that the results would
have been different had they used other sources such as television. The investigation
was extensive, yet time consuming as it involved the analysis of six years worth of
magazines.
2.5 Celebrity Athlete Endorsers in Football
The popularity and size of the football business is soaring with lots of money being
made and football being the most popular sport in the world for over a century
(Witzig, 2006). The reason for the popularity of football and why it is so marketable
could be due to the fact that its players are easily recognisable as they compete in
simple shorts and jerseys (Scott, 2006).
The commercial value of the football
industry only started to change during the 1970s with opportunities for players who
were hard working, uncontroversial and had a high profile such as that of Kevin
Keegan (Smart, 2005). This meant more commercial opportunities were increasing
for the marketable player with earnings from commercial work often taking over
earnings derived from playing the game; frequently from lucrative endorsement deals
that could range from toiletries, clothing and sports related products (Smart, 2005).
Furthermore, the use of the press and other media such as radio and television
helped establish modern sports such as football and promote sporting figures, which
played a significant role in cultivating a sports culture of sporting celebrity and raising
the profile of sport (Smart, 2005).
The use of celebrity athlete endorsers in football have been most effective when
there is a match between the endorser and brand, for example a football player
would be more effective endorsing football boots than cars (Simmers et al., 2009).
This is because consumers aspire to emulate the celebrity endorsing the product and
are more likely to accept meanings from brands associated with these people
(Escalas & Bettman, 2009). Moreover, even though a customer is aware that the
player endorsing the product is being paid to support that brand; they believe that the
12
player would not use a product that would weaken their performance so the product
must be good (Ace, 2002). Additionally, research has shown that female athletes are
underrepresented in product endorsements even though female consumers trust
women athletes more and male consumers trust male athletes (Boyd & Shank, 2004;
Grau et al., 2007).
Arguably the strongest example of an effective athlete endorser in football is that of
David Beckham who has widespread global appeal of being fashionable, tolerant and
family orientated (Hale, 2003). This consequently makes him attractive to
organisations as an endorser resulting in endorsement agreements with companies
such as Vodafone, Adidas and Pepsi making him at least $12million a year (Hale,
2003). Furthermore, this made him the highest paid soccer player of 2004 even
though he was not considered the world’s most talented player and has never won
the FIFA world player of the year award (Nuesch, 2007). He was signed to Real
Madrid in 2004 perhaps more for his off the field popularity to attract fans than his
playing ability but by the end of 2006 he had been relegated to the bench (Nuesch,
2007). This then meant he signed a five year contract with Los Angeles Galaxy in
2007 which is the ideal place to cash in on his celebrity appeal, with press reports
indicating that his salary and commercial opportunities are worth £250 million and
therefore reinforcing his celebrity appeal and endorsement ability (Bell, 2007).
On the other hand, consumers may form negative association about a brand from
celebrity endorsers with images they do not aspire to obtain and subsequently
disassociate themselves from the brand (Escalas & Bettman, 2009). This is
particularly the case with parochial sports such as football because using an
endorser that is popular in one section of the industry may cause unfavourable
affects in another; for example, the sales of Sugar Puffs fell dramatically in
Sunderland when Kevin Keegan the then Newcastle manager agreed to endorse the
product (Beech & Chadwick, 2007).
13
This can also be the case for endorsers who engage in socially unacceptable
behaviour which can cause consumer alienation from the product to arise (Till, 2001).
For example, Coca-Cola scrapped plans to include Wayne Rooney in their
advertising campaigns after it emerged he had cheated on his wife while she was
pregnant (Graham, 2010).
Nevertheless, some companies believe that negative
behaviour will allow a celebrity to stand out in the oversaturated market, such as Nike
choosing to stay affiliated with Eric Cantona even though he attacked a fan (Burton et
al., 2000).
2.6 Rationale
The research and literature studied indicated that there is a lack of research on sport
specific products and the effectiveness of athletes endorsing these products.
Subsequently, the research seemed to focus on the effectiveness of athletes
endorsing non sporting products and their success in endorsing these products. This
indicates that there is need to investigate the use of athlete endorsers solely on sport
related products. It was also noted that there was minimal research based in the UK,
as most of the investigations located came from overseas. This would then indicate
the need for more UK based studies on the effectiveness of athlete celebrity
endorsers. Additionally, none of the research found focussed on one sport as a
whole. Instead the investigations focussed on celebrity endorsers in general which
would suggest the need for an investigation into the effectiveness of celebrity
endorsers in one sport alone. Moreover, there were contradicting views on the effect
of credibility of an athlete on product sales. Furthermore, there were a minimal
number of studies which focussed on the sport of football alone which has a number
of influential athlete endorsers so could present interesting results on the
effectiveness of these endorsers. Therefore the potential for the question ‘How
effective are celebrity athlete endorsers in promoting football boots in the UK and
does credibility influence effectiveness?’.
14
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
3.0 Methodology
3.1 Introduction
To carry out this investigation a mixed method approach was adopted which
combined both qualitative and quantitative research to better understand the
research problem (Creswell, 2009). The use of a mixed method approach bridged the
gap between quantitative and qualitative research methodologies and is gaining
popularity as a viable research approach (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998). This is
because it utilises the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative research and has
allowed for research methodology to develop and evolve; along with the fact that
more insight can be gained from the mixture of both approaches than either form by
itself (Creswell, 2009). The questionnaires used were of a mixed method design so
included both broad open ended unrestricted questions followed by a number of
closed ended questions that had a pre planned response format (Teddie &
Tashakkori, 2009). The design of the mixed method research was complex and time
consuming because of the different approaches to addressing the research question
(Daymon & Holloway, 2011). Moreover, the mixed method approach is not always
superior to a single method data collection and is only applicable when the
characteristics of both quantitative and qualitative methods are desired; these
characteristics can be seen below. (Axinn & Pearce, 2006).
The characteristics of qualitative research include data being interpreted in terms of
the meanings it brings to people and investigates subjects in their natural settings in
an attempt to make sense of them (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994). The advantage of using
qualitative research is that unlike the quantitative method it is possible to find out not
only what happens but how it happens (Edwards & Skinner, 2009). This is because it
allows for a more flexible approach which investigates the processes and meanings
of the issue at hand, as well as allowing a more personal relationship between the
researcher and what is being studied with the ability to gain meaningful responses
from participants (Sharma, 2004.). However, qualitative methods do not identify small
differences quite as well as large scale quantitative research which could serve as a
limitation and enhance the need for a mixed method approach (Proctor, 2000).
15
Quantitative research involves collecting numerical data to explain phenomena by
using mathematically based methods (Aliaga & Gunderson, 2002). This allows for
results to be more statistically reliable and make them projectable to the population
(Nykiel, 2007). The reason for this is that correlations and definitive answers are
illustrated in the results unlike qualitative research (Brown, 2000).
However,
quantitative methods can only be used if the issues to be measured are known prior
to the survey, thus suggesting the need for a mixed method approach (Nykel, 2007).
3.2 Design
The method used to collect this data was questionnaires which are arguably the most
commonly used method of data collection in sport (Gratton & Jones, 2010). They
involve a series of questions or statements that are presented to respondents
through a written instrument in which they are to react by selecting from existing
answers or by writing out their own answers (Brown, 2001).
Questionnaires were selected because they are highly regarded as an effective way
to collect data in a structured and manageable form by enabling the transmission of
useful information or data from the respondent to the researcher (Wilkinson &
Birmingham, 2003). Furthermore, questionnaires are a particularly valuable method
of collecting data from large numbers of people in a short period of time; this is
because there is the possibility of more participants if the questionnaires only take a
small amount of time to complete (Langdridge, 2004). Moreover, there is also the
potential of reduction in bias since a well designed questionnaire offers little
opportunity to introduce bias in the results which may well be possible with
interviews, for example the use of the researcher’s body language or the way they
respond may influence the participant’s answers (Gratton & Jones, 2010). Also,
having no interviewer allows for a degree of anonymity which may allow for the
participants to give more accurate responses by making them feel more relaxed and
reduces the risk of socially desirable bias (McGivern, 2009). Finally, questionnaires
16
were also selected due to their use in previous research (Yeung-Jo & June- Hee,
2007) where survey questionnaires were used to gain high numbers of responses to
investigate the effectiveness of athlete endorsers. As well as Shuart (2007) using a
mixed method approach by using qualitative questionnaires and Likert scales to
successfully investigate the effectiveness of athlete endorsers.
In relation to the design of the questionnaires, the questions have been derived from
themes and emerging issues found in the literature, this will ensure that the research
project adds meaningfully to the existing literature (Millen & Vernarelli, 2008). As
already stated, the questions will range from broad open ended responses to simple
yes and no answers in addition to the use of a five point Likert scale. A likert scale
allows the respondent to identify a level of agreement or disagreement with a
statement so allows them to express their attitude about the concept under study
(McDaniel & Gates, 1998).
3.3 Participants
The participants involved in this study included male and female athletes who play for
the University of Wales Institutes Cardiff’s (UWIC) football teams between the ages
of 18-24. The reason for this choice of participants is because Barker (2002)
suggested that the biggest purchasers of sports clothing comes from the age group
of 15-24. This would suggest that this age bracket is most influenced by celebrity
athlete endorsers so would be an appropriate age bracket to investigate. Previous
studies have also used this sample (Shuart, 2007; Yeung-Yo & June-Hee, 2007) so it
may well support and substantiate previous findings. The participants involved also
included the same number of males and females to prevent any bias, because male
and female responses may vary and allowing for gender to serve as an independent
variable which can then be compared (Gratton & Jones, 2010).
17
3.4 Procedure
The sampling method used was that of stratified random sampling. This involved the
population being divided into subpopulations based on one or more classification
criteria (DeFusco et al., 2007). The reason for this method was because the sample
size can be adjusted so that there are an equal number of males and females
(Zhang, 2007) This was particularly important because the population to be studied of
those registered to play football for UWIC included 45 females and 60 males (UWIC
Student Union, 2010). The desired sample size included 31 males and 31 females
who were randomly selected from the above population because a larger sample size
is more desirable and this number will provide a realistic number of responses
(Gratton & Jones, 2010). The questionnaires will be administered by the researcher
who will attend a training session because the researcher’s presence will encourage
participants to respond in addition to being able to clarify questions for the
respondents, however this could also reduce perceived anonymity so participants
may be less open and honest with their answers (Mitchell & Jolley, 2010).
3.5 Pilot Study
It is vital to pilot questionnaires beforehand to make sure they work as intended and
involve a small-scale administration of the survey prior to the main dispensation
(Gratton & Jones, 2010). The use of pilot work is expensive and time consuming but
ensures that the wording of questions is clear and understandable, as well as
checking the ordering of questions to make sure they are clear and logical
(Oppenhein,1992). Piloting also checks for small errors such as spelling and typing
mistakes which could have an effect on the meaning of a question (Brace, 2008).
The pilot study included participants who were not involved in the research project
with six respondents being asked to complete the pilot study. Six respondents were
chosen because this was 10% of the population size that was used for the research
project. The participants asked were football players because conditions should be
as close as possible to the main survey (Gratton & Jones, 2010). The questionnaires
administered were those shown in appendix A and participants were asked for their
18
thoughts on the questionnaires following completion. This then resulted in several of
the questions being reworded, for example a number of questions mentioned the
word athlete so meant that it took the focus away from the study being on football
players, and meant that respondents thought of athletes in general. Subsequently,
the biggest change was the use of SNAP to make the questionnaires look more
professional and aid analysis which can be seen in appendix B.
3.6 Data Analysis
The results gathered from the questionnaires will be input to the PC based SNAP
software programme which has the ability to present graphs and find correlations
(Burns & Bush, 2000). The closed questions can be input straight to the software but
the open ended questions are somewhat harder and more time consuming to
analyse even though they can yield valuable information (Thomas et al., 2011).
Nonetheless, a coding technique will be used in which categories will be identified
from the questionnaire responses before being input to the SNAP software
programme (Proctor, 2000). This then allows for closer examination and easier
comparison of qualitative data (Yin, 2011).
3.7 Validity and Reliability
The method was also designed to be both valid and reliable; validity refers to the
degree in which the test or instrument measures what it claims to measure (Thomas
et al., 2011). An integral part of validity is reliability as a test cannot be considered
valid if it is not reliable, and refers to the consistency or repeatability of a measure
(Thomas et al., 2011). Moreover, tests can be reliable and not valid, but being valid
makes it reliable; for example weighing something repeatedly on broken scales would
give reliable but not valid results (Jackson, 2009). Subsequently the researcher has
identified weaknesses in the research design and what was done to overcome those
weaknesses.
19
The questionnaires were self administered which meant the participants may have
tried to be helpful and friendly by exaggerating their interest and involvement with the
subject just to be supportive and positive (Veal, 2006). The researcher
consequentially made sure that close friends were not used in the study to minimise
the chance of this happening (Brace, 2008). Subsequently, according to McGivern
(2009) there was also the possibility of receiving little detail in open ended questions
because the responses were too vague or not related to the study, which could then
lead to a lack of information being collected. To overcome this, the researcher made
sure that the participants were given enough time to complete the questionnaire
thoroughly as suggested by Thomas et al. (2011). Finally, because the questions
were pre determined it left no opportunity to probe once the questions had been
answered by the respondents, so therefore left no opportunity for them to expand on
the points they had made (Gratton & Jones, 2010). The researcher therefore planned
and prepared the questionnaire carefully to ensure that the utmost information was
gathered from the participants as suggested by Thomas et al. (2010).
Despite the limitations identified, questionnaires were still the chosen choice of
measurement. Questions were designed to allow participants to develop their
answers further by including a range of open ended question which allowed
participants to expand on their answers (Bates, 2007). Questions were also non
intrusive to the respondent’s personal lives which reduced the risk of dishonest
responses (Velde et al., 2004).
20
3.8 Ethical Considerations
Ethics in research is essential for any project and relates particularly to the welfare of
the participants including the conditions of privacy, anonymity and confidentiality of
the information provided (McNamee et al., 2007). This is specifically important
because it relates to preventing the dissemination of sensitive, attributable
information and ensures anonymity of participants (McNamee et al., 2007). This was
done by giving the participants an information sheet to inform them of their role in the
research and what was required of them. They were also asked to sign voluntary
informed consent forms which secured their compliance in the investigation and can
be seen in appendices C and D respectively (Daymon & Holloway, 2011).
3.9 Limitations
The validity and reliability of a project can also be affected by limitations in the
research process. For example, the sample size included 62 participants which is
considered relatively small for a project involving questionnaires; a larger sample size
would improve the validity of the project (Berg & Latin, 2008). Furthermore, the
sample included students who were aged between 18 and 24 and played football for
UWIC, this meant that the sample was not a representative of the whole population
meaning that findings cannot be generalised (Walsh, 2001). Ultimately, the
researcher’s lack of experience in collecting primary data may have resulted in a
more costly and lengthy research process (Kurtz et al., 2010).
21
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
4.1 Results
Q.1. Gender
31 females (50%) and 31 males (50%) answered the questionnaire
Q.2. Age
The respondents were aged 18 to 22 with the mode being 19, as illustrated in table 1.
Table 1. Age and sex of the sample
Q.3. Football level
The majority of respondents were playing at club level (88.7%), with a small
proportion playing at county (4.8%) and international level (6.5%). There were no
respondents playing recreationally.
Q.4. Current team
All of the respondents played for UWIC but 8 (29%) of the females also played for
another club.
22
Q.5. The player that first comes to mind when thinking of the term athlete
endorsement in football.
The sample recognised David Beckham (79%) more than any other athlete. The
second and third most recognised athletes were Wayne Rooney (6.5%) and
Christiano Ronaldo (4.8%) respectively, most commonly identified by females
demonstrated in table 2.
Table 2. Athlete identification and gender.
Q.6. Identification of products and services the selected player endorses.
The sample correctly identified a number of products and services that the selected
players endorsed. In particular the respondents were able to name the most products
and services for the most recognised athlete of David Beckham shown below in
figure 1.
23
Figure 1. Products and services associated with David Beckham
The answers were similar for both males and females with Adidas being the most
recognised product or service associated with David Beckham illustrated in figure 2.
Figure 2. Products and services associated with David Beckham and gender.
Number
of
Respondents
Gender
The responses under the other category included Sharpie pens, Perfume and the
FIFA 2018 Olympic bid.
24
Q.7. Would the product or service be purchased if it was endorsed by the
selected player.
35 (56.5%) respondents would be more likely to purchase the product or service if it
was endorsed by the selected player compared to 27 (43.5%) who would not be
more likely to purchase the product or service.
Q.8. The reasons for this, if yes.
The most common reason for the purchasing of a certain product because of an
endorser was because they were the respondent’s ‘role model/ sporting hero’ with 18
(51.4%) of the overall sample identifying this explanation. The second most popular
response was ‘best on the market’ for the males with 5 (23.6%) identifying this, and
‘increased credibility’ for the females with 6 (37.5%) choosing this response. No
females identified ‘best on the market’ as a reason. The third most popular choice
amongst the females was ‘increased quality’ with a 31.1% response rate compared to
the males only having a 5.3% response rate for the same reply. The results can be
seen in figure 3.
Figure 3. Reasons for the purchasing of endorsed products and services.
Percentage
of
respondents
Gender
25
Q.9. Would a consumer be more likely to purchase a product if there’s a match
between product and endorser.
36 respondents (58.1%) were more likely to purchase a product if there was a match
between product and endorser compared to 26 (41.9%) who would not.
Q.10. Have football boots been purchased because they were endorsed.
Football boots have been purchased because they were endorsed with 39 (62.9%)
participants answering yes against 23 (37.1%) who said no. The responses were
equal over both genders with 19 (61.3%) males and 20 (64.5%) females having
purchased football boots because they were endorsed.
Q.11. The reasons for this, if yes.
The most recognised reason for the sample purchasing football boots was because
they were ‘well respected’ with 16 (41%) respondents identifying this as the reason.
Secondly, the sample recognised ‘nice design’ as their reason for purchasing specific
boots because they were endorsed with 12 (30.8%) people stating this answer.
Figure 4 illustrates the results in relation to males and females who demonstrated
similar response patterns.
26
Figure 4. Reasons for the purchase of endorsed football boots.
Percentage
of
respondents
Gender
Q.12. Would participants be prepared to pay more for endorsed football boots.
Male participants would pay more for boots if they were endorsed with 18 (58.1%)
respondents agreeing that they would pay more. Whereas females would not pay
more for endorsed boots with 19 (61.3%) responding with no.
Figure 5. Pay more for endorsed football boots and gender
27
Q.13. How much more would be paid, if yes.
The majority of respondents were willing to pay up to £50 more for endorsed boots
with 15 (51.7%) people out of 29 prepared to pay this amount which is illustrated in
table 3.
Table 3. How much more consumers are willing to pay and gender.
Q.14. The ability to name any female football boot endorsers.
54 (87.1%) respondents were unable to identify female football endorsers with only 8
(12.9%) respondents able to correctly identify a female boot endorser. The results
were identical for both males and females with both groups only able to identify 4
female boot endorsers.
Q.15. The ability to correctly name the female endorser and product endorsed.
The most recognised player was Kelly Smith with 7 (63.6%) participants all correctly
identifying that she endorsed Umbro. The second most recognised athlete was
Rachel Yankee with 2 (18.2%) respondents identifying her as an endorser of Umbro.
Rachel Unit and Anouk Hoojendick were also named as endorsers with one response
each, and were associated with Umbro and Nike respectively.
28
Q.16. Athlete endorsers as an effective marketing strategy.
Almost all respondents recognised athlete endorsement as an effective marketing
strategy with 61 (98.4%) agreeing to this.
Q. 17. The most effective method or combination of methods for marketing
football boots.
The sample identified ‘athlete uses the product’ as the most effective marketing
method with 45 (46.9%) respondents choosing this option. The second most popular
method was different for males and females and is illustrated in figure 6 with males
finding ‘athlete appears in a setting with the product’ more effective.
Figure 6. Most effective methods of marketing football boots and gender.
Percentage
of
respondents
Gender
29
Q.18. The importance of the following characteristics.
a. Sporting Expertise (Success, Skill)
Sporting expertise was rated extremely important by 45 (72.6%) respondents and the
responses were similar for both males and females.
b. Trustworthiness (Honesty, Believability)
Trustworthiness was rated fairly important by both males and females with 27
(43.5%) of the sample selecting this response.
c. Likeability (Character, Humour, Kind)
Likeability was perceived to be extremely important by both males and females with
28 (45.2%) opting for this choice, however this included 17 female responses
compared to 11 male responses.
d. Physical Appearance (Attractiveness)
Physical appearance was rated as fairly important by the majority of respondents with
25 (40.3%) selecting this response. The second most popular response was
extremely important and closely followed by important with 14 (22.6%) and 13 (21%)
participants selecting these answers respectively.
Q.19. The most effective advertising medium.
Overall, the most effective advertising medium was considered to be both a mixture
of broadcast media and print media with 31 (50%) respondents choosing this answer.
However, as illustrated in figure 7, males found broadcast media alone to be most
effective with 19 (61.3) respondents. Whereas females found both a mixture of
broadcast media and print media to be most effective with 20 (64.5%) respondents.
30
Figure 7. The most effective advertising medium and gender.
Q.20. The ability to think of examples where football players have received
negative media exposure.
42 (67.7%) participants were able to identify an example where a football player had
received negative media exposure. However, only 16 (51.6%) out of the 31 males
asked were able to think of an example. While 26 (83.9%) of the females asked were
able to think of an example.
Q.21. Examples of players who have received negative media exposure.
Wayne Rooney was the most recognised player by both sexes with 22 (32.8%)
people identifying examples of him receiving negative media exposure. Next was
John Terry with 20 (29.9%) respondents identifying him. The third most recognised
was David Beckham with 7 (10.4%) people identifying him. Wayne Rooney was
noted as having a wide range of negative media exposure which can be seen in
figure 8. It is interesting to note that only females identified driving offences and
violence, whereas only males identified poor sporting performance. John Terry and
David Beckham were mainly identified as only having been unfaithful.
31
Figure 8. Wayne Rooney’s negative media exposure and gender.
Percentage
of
respondents
Gender
Q.21. and Q.5. Cross tabulation between David Beckham receiving negative
media exposure and the player who first comes to mind when thinking of the
term athlete endorsement in football.
Question 21 has been cross tabulated with question five to illustrate that six of the
seven people who associated David Beckham with negative media exposure also
identified him as the first athlete who comes to mind when thinking of the term athlete
endorsement in football. This can be seen in table 4.
32
Table 4. David Beckham’s associations with negative media exposure and most
recognised endorser in football.
Q.22. The effect of negative media attention on purchasing patterns.
There were an equal number of yes and no responses regarding the effect of
negative media attention on purchasing patterns. However, negative media exposure
would not affect 19 (61.3%) of the males compared to 12 (38.7%) of the females . 19
(61.3%) females would refrain from buying a product if the endorser had received
negative media attention, compared to only 12 (38.7%) males illustrated in figure 9.
Figure 9. The effect of negative media on purchasing patterns and gender.
33
Q.22. and Q18b. Cross tabulation between the effect of negative media on
purchasing patterns and Trustworthiness.
Question 22 has been cross tabulated with question 18b to illustrate that of the 31
respondents who said that negative media exposure does not affect their likeliness of
purchasing endorsed products, there were still 27 (87%) respondents who rated
trustworthiness as an important or higher attribute of an endorser in Q.18b. This can
be seen from table 5 and figure 10.
Table 5. The effect of negative media on purchasing patterns and Trustworthiness.
Figure 10. The important of trustworthiness and the effect of negative media on
purchasing patterns.
Would
Importance
Negative
trustworthiness
media
characteristic
exposure
affect your
likeliness
to
purchase a
product?
Number of 34
respondents
of
Q.23. The reason why negative media attention affects purchasing patterns.
The most popular reason why negative media attention affects purchasing patterns
was a lack of respect for the endorsing player with 15 (48.4%) of all answers
identifying this reason. Next, consumers did not want to be associated with that
player as 14 (45.2%) respondents identified this reason. The male and female
responses were similar but more females identified a lack of trust towards the player
than males which can be seen in figure 11.
Figure 11. The reason why negative media attention affects purchasing patterns and
gender.
Percentage
of
respondents
Gender
35
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION
5.0 Discussion
The discussion will examine the findings gathered from the questionnaires presented
in the results section. Specific questions will be referred to as Q, for example Q.2.
5.1 Knowledge of Endorsers in Football
One of the first topics to be addressed was the participants existing knowledge of
athlete endorsers in football (Q.5). All participants were able to name a football player
related to the term athlete endorsement and David Beckham was by far the most
recognised athlete with 79% of the sample identifying him. This supports the view
held by Hale (2003) that David Beckham is an effective endorser who has
widespread global appeal resulting in a large number of endorsement agreements.
Furthermore, it is interesting to note that world class players at the top of their game
such as Wayne Rooney and Christiano Ronaldo only received 6.5% and 4.8% of the
total share respectively. This would suggest that endorsement deals favour the more
popular athletes rather than those with more sporting ability, as David Beckham is
now not seen to be at the top of his game but is still the most widely recognised
endorser in football (Nuesch, 2003). Moreover, Wayne Rooney and Christiano
Ronaldo were primarily recognised by females which would imply, that amongst
participants in this study females recognise sporting performance more than males.
None of the participants acknowledged a female athlete as the player that first came
to mind when thinking of the term athlete endorsement in football, but Q.14.
specifically asked if the participants could name any female boot endorsers. Only
12.9% were able to correctly identify a female boot endorser, with 63.6% of this then
noting Kelly Smith making her the most recognised female endorser (Q.15). This then
coincides with the notion held by Boyd and Shank (2004) and Grau et al. (2007) that
female endorsers are underrepresented. In spite of this Hoyer and Macinnis (2010)
suggested that female endorsers are often seen as more popular and credible than
male endorsers which would indicate the potential for their increased contribution to
sport marketing.
36
Participants were then asked to name any products or services their selected player
endorses (Q.6.). The largest number recalled were those endorsed by David
Beckham with over eight products and services being named. Figure 1 illustrates the
products and services named with Adidas being the most recognised having a 27.3%
share. A large proportion (11.2%) also noted that he endorses football boots which
would strengthen the views held by Simmers et al. (2009) that endorsers are more
effective when representing products related to their profession. However, the fact
that only footballers were asked may have governed the choice of football and
sporting related products and services being identified. It is also interesting to note
that products and services that he no longer endorses such as Gillette whose
contract ended in 2007 have still been associated with him (Hawkes, 2007). This
would suggest to businesses that the use of endorsers such as David Beckham
would provide a long term investment because the athlete will be associated with the
products and services long after the endorsement deal has ended. The use of a high
profile athlete such as David Beckham has also been emphasised by Cashmore
(2004), who suggested that he will still prevail even if he suffers a long term injury or
drop in form due to his large collection of endorsement deals ensuring his image is
always evident everywhere in the world. Furthermore, a large percentage of
consumers recognised David Beckham for endorsing products and services that are
not related to sport such as Sharpie pens, Armani underwear and Pepsi. This would
then challenge the notion by Leslie (2011) that no direct connection between
endorser and product may be troublesome in generating product sales.
5.2 The Effect of Endorsement on Purchase Intentions
One of the main objectives of this research project was to determine whether the use
of celebrity endorsers influences consumer intentions to buy a product or service.
Q.7. asked if the player selected in Q.5. would make the respondent more likely to
purchase a product they endorsed. 56.5% of the sample stated they would be more
likely to purchase an endorsed product by their player of choice compared to 43.5%
who would not. This then reinforces the belief held by Kamins and Gupta (1994) that
endorsement has a greater impact on purchase intent and brand attitudes.
37
The reasons for this were addressed in Q.8. with the most popular reason for both
males and females being that the endorser was their role model/ sporting hero
therefore influencing their decision to buy the product. This then supports the findings
of Shuart (2007) who determined that someone known as a hero is proven to be a
more successful spokesperson. This could be due to the positive characteristics that
hero status athletes tend to have such as success, talent and confidence which
companies want to project (Jones & Schumann, 2004). Males then stated that their
second reason for purchasing the endorsed product was because they perceived it to
be the best on the market; however no females identified this as a reason. The
rationale for this could be that men like to have the latest technology on the market in
order to show off to peers (Ferell & Hartline, 2008). Whereas the second most
popular choice for females was that they perceived the endorsed product to have
more credibility. This would then suggest that females look for the reputation and
reliability of a product more than males as mentioned by Brassington and Pettitt
(2006).
Q.9. then addressed the issue of the importance of a match between product and
endorser. 58.1% of participants indicated that they would be more likely to buy a
product if there is a match between product and endorser which supports the findings
by Simmers et al. (2009).
More specifically to football Q.10. addressed whether football boots have been
purchased because they were endorsed. 62.9% have purchased football boots due
to them being endorsed with both males and females giving similar responses. This
would suggest that endorsement acts as an effective marketing tool for football boots
and helps justify why fifty percent of total expenditure on products is marketing costs
as suggested by Boone et al. (2010). The reasons addressed were similar for both
males and females with the most popular reason being that they perceived the
endorsed product to be well respected. This emphasises the need for a well
respected endorser in order for their positive image to be reflected on the product,
and avoid any negative associations from an athlete with a bad reputation as
suggested by Beech and Chadwick (2007).
38
5.3 Can Endorsement Merit Price?
Participants were asked in Q.12. if they would pay more for endorsed football boots.
The results indicated that 58.1% of males would pay more for endorsed boots
compared to only 38.7% of females. This suggests that current endorsement
campaigns may be male focussed and could be due to the lack of female boot
endorsers present in football as already mentioned. The reason that companies can
charge more for endorsed products could be because the use of an endorser allows
the product to be easily identifiable and differentiated from competing products as
earlier stated by Naik and Reddy (1999). Differentiation is important as it means the
endorsed product can be distinguished from competing products and can allow for
perceived differences such as increased quality (Pride & Ferrell, 2010). Cowen
(2000) also suggested that endorsed products can charge more because the
endorsing star is certifying its quality by linking his or hers reputation to the product.
Furthermore, Q.13. addressed how much more respondents would be prepared to
pay for an endorsed product. It was found that the majority of participants (51.7%)
were prepared to pay up to £50 extra for an endorsed product. This may also indicate
that if a company were to charge more than this prospective customers may be put
off.
5.4 Effectiveness of Athlete Endorsement
The effectiveness of athlete endorsers was then investigated in Q.16. where
participants were asked if they perceived athlete endorsement to be an effective
marketing strategy. The results were conclusive in that the majority of respondents
(98.4%) recognised athlete endorsement as an effective marketing strategy. This
would suggest that endorsers can make a significant contribution to the marketing
strategy of an organisation.
39
The study then investigated the most effective method for marketing football boots
using player endorsers (Q.17). It was found that the greater number of respondents
(46.9%) would be most affected if the player endorsing the product actually uses it.
This would then demonstrate the effectiveness of the explicit mode as mentioned by
Brooks (1998).
Subsequently, the importance of the following characteristics were addressed (Q.18).
Sporting expertise, trustworthiness, likeability and physical appearance, which make
up the credibility of an athlete according to Ohanian (1990). It was found that sporting
expertise and likeability were rated extremely important with 72.6% and 45.2%
respectively. Trustworthiness and physical appearance were then rated fairly
important with 43.5% and 40.3% respectively. This therefore emphasises the
importance of using a credible athlete endorser and the need for that athlete to keep
a credible and clean image to ensure a greater persuasive message to consumers as
suggested by Boyd and Shank (2004). Furthermore, this builds on the work carried
out by Yeung-Jo and June-Hee (2007) who proposed that the credibility and
attractiveness of an endorser had a significant effect of the success of the endorser.
The next question asked what participants considered the most effective advertising
medium for athlete endorsers to be (Q.19). The results differed for both males and
females with males finding broadcast media alone to be the most effective through
61.3% choosing this response. In contrast, females found both a mixture of print and
broadcast media to be the most effective. This would suggest that companies may
need to design different marketing campaigns depending on the gender of the target
market. It could also challenge the work carried out by Yeung-Jo and June-Hee
(2007), Ruihley et al. (2010) whose investigations focussed solely on print media.
40
5.5 The Effect of Negative Media Exposure on Endorsements
Companies now see endorsers as a high risk marketing strategy due to the risk of
being associated with an athlete who has received negative media exposure (Beech
& Chadwick, 2007). This view seems to be the case as 67.7% (Q.20). of participants
were able to identify an example of a football player who had received negative
media exposure. However, only 51.6% of males were able to think of an example
compared to 83.9% of females. This would suggest that negative media exposure
would affect females more than males due to their awareness of the issues at hand.
The most recognised player associated with negative media exposure was that of
Wayne Rooney (Q.21). where 32.8% of respondents were able to name an example
of this. The negative media associated with Wayne Rooney can be seen in figure 8
with being unfaithful having the largest percentage share. The increased awareness
of this incident could be due to Coca-Cola publicly scrapping their plans to use him in
their advertising campaign after this information came to light (Graham, 2010). It is
also worthy of note that only females were aware of driving offences and violence
associated with Wayne Rooney, whereas only males identified poor sporting
performance, which could suggest males and females are affected by different types
if negative media.
Q.21. was cross tabulated with Q.5 and it was found that David Beckham was
associated with negative media exposure by six out of the seven people who had
also named him as their most recognised player shown in table 4. This therefore
argues that athlete endorsers can still be successful after negative media exposure
as suggested by Burton et al. (2000). Moreover, six out of the seven people who
associated David Beckham with negative media recognised him as being unfaithful
even though this was never proven (Carlin, 2004). This shows that even being
associated with a negative incident can stay with a player even though the event
occurred in 2004 (Carlin, 2004).
41
Q.22. and Q.23. then addressed the affect of negative media attention on purchasing
patterns and the reasons for this. It was found that 61.3% of women would refrain
from purchasing a product if the player had received negative media attention, while
only 38.7% of males would abstain from purchasing a product. This would suggest
that women are more affected by negative media attention, but women can also
influence the buying behaviours of family purchases with Kotler and Armstrong
(2010) arguing that women make 85% of family purchases therefore meaning
females may influence male purchasing patterns. The fact that consumers would still
buy a product after the endorser has been associated with negative media exposure
could explain why the work by Ruihley et al. (2010) found that the use of athlete
endorsers is increasing even though the credibility of these athletes has been
questioned. Furthermore, the main reason stated for why negative associations
would deter 48.4% of participants from buying a product was because consumers
had a lack of respect for the endorsing player. This would then accentuate the view
held of Escalas and Bettman (2009) who suggested that consumers would
disassociate themselves from the brand if the endorser had a negative image which
they do not aspire to obtain.
Finally, Q.22. was cross tabulated with Q.18b. which compared the number of people
who stated that negative media exposure would affect their purchase intentions,
along with their rating of the importance of trustworthiness. It was found that 87% of
the respondents who said they would not purchase a specific product if the endorser
had been associated with negative media, still rated trustworthiness as an important
or higher characteristic for an endorser. Trustworthiness relates to providing
information in an objective and honest manor so would be directly associated with a
player receiving negative media attention (Ohanian, 1991). This would suggest that
companies should still promote the use of an endorser with a clean image as
consumer’s value this so could therefore result in enhancing a company’s image and
therefore a boost in sales.
42
CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSION
36
6.1 Conclusion
It has been established that the use of athlete endorsement is an effective marketing
method for football boots and can result in positively affecting the purchasing
patterns of consumers within the 18-24 age group. This therefore addresses the first
objective set in the introduction by confirming that endorsement is a successful
marketing strategy for football boots. Furthermore, it was found that endorsement
deals favour popular athletes over those with sporting ability with David Beckham
being the most recognised athlete in football. He was also the endorser for which the
most brands could be named, the majority of which were associated with football
such as Adidas and football boots. However, there were also items such as Sharpie
pens associated with David Beckham which have no direct link to sport, and products
which he is no longer affiliated with such as Gillete.
This would suggest that
endorsers can retain benefits after the endorsement contract has ended. Additionally,
there was evidence that females are underrepresented as endorsers because there
was minimal recognition of the products and services they endorse. However, this
could be due to their underuse more than their popularity as they are often seen as
more credible than male endorsers.
Moreover, the second objective set in the introduction has been met because it was
found that the main reasons for an endorsers affect on purchasing patterns was
because the player was their role model/ sporting hero and they respected them. This
allowed companies to project the player’s success, talent and confidence onto the
product. It was also found that respondents would be prepared to pay up to £50 more
for endorsed products which would justify the increased marketing costs of using
such a promotional method. However, men would be more willing to pay a higher
price than females which could be due to the lack of female football boot endorsers
present.
43
The third objective has also been met as it was found that the credibility of an
endorser is perceived as an important attribute by participants. This is because if the
credibility of an athlete is negatively portrayed in the media then a large number of
consumers would refrain from purchasing a product associated with that player.
However, women would be more likely not to purchase a product with negative
associations than men, even though the majority of men still rated trustworthiness as
an important characteristic for an endorser. Finally, the fourth objective has been met
because the research showed that consumers and particularly females are very
aware of negative associations with players in the media, and a transgression can
stay with a player for a long period of time. The most recognised offenses were
associated with Wayne Rooney, but David Beckham was still noted for having been
unfaithful even though this was never proven. Now that all of the objectives have
been met, it can be established that the research question has been efficiently
answered with celebrity athlete endorsers being proven to be effective at promoting
football boots in the UK and credibility influencing this effectiveness.
6.2 Practical Implications for Marketers
The findings of the research could help govern marketing methods for football boots
in the UK. This is because the research found that companies would benefit from
using a credible high profile athlete with minimal negative associations such as David
Beckham to promote football boots; the reason for this is because the athlete may
well still be associated with the product for years to come. Furthermore, the
increased cost of hiring a high profile athlete can be justified through consumers
being prepared to pay more for endorsed football boots and allows the successful
reputation of the endorser to be reflected on the product. Moreover, the investigation
suggested that marketers of football boots may well benefit from designing different
marketing campaigns according to the gender of the target market because it was
found that females favour a mixture of print and broadcast media, whereas males
found the use of broadcast media alone most effective. Finally, the study showed that
using football boot endorsers who demonstrated the explicit mode of endorsement by
actually using the product proved the most effective with consumers.
44
6.3 Recommendations for Future Research
A number of potential additions to the project became apparent to the author
throughout the investigation that would further develop future research. Firstly, the
project was specific to the promotion of football boots using athlete endorsers, which
therefore leaves the potential to investigate consumer attitudes towards the
marketing of other products and services through the use of athlete endorsement.
There was also the potential to utilise focus groups or interviews. This would allow
areas of interest from the questionnaire results to be expanded or gain further insight
into the effectiveness of athlete endorsers. Subsequently, the study only focussed on
consumer attitudes towards athlete endorsers, which consequently would offer the
opportunity to consider the views of the effectiveness of athlete endorsers for
companies who use them as a marketing tool. Finally, all participants involved in the
study played at club level or above, it would be interesting to consider if attitudes
towards endorsers may fluctuate at different levels of football such as recreational.
45
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
Pilot Questionnaire
1. Please state your sex?
o Male.....................
o Female................
2. Please state your age? ______
3. What football level do you play at?
o Recreational.........
o Club.....................
o County.................
o International.........
4. What football team do you play for? ___________________________________
5. Which athlete first comes to mind when you think of the term athlete endorsement
in football?
_________________________________________________________________
6. For the selected athlete, can you name any products or services they
endorse?
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
7. Would seeing a product endorsed by this athlete make you more likely to
purchase it?
o Yes......................
o No........................
8. If yes, what are the reasons for this?
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
58
9. Would you be more likely to buy a product if there was a match
between product and endorser?
o Yes......................
o No........................
10. Have you purchased football boots because they were endorsed?
o Yes......................
o No........................
11. If yes, what are your reasons for this?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
12. Would you be prepared to pay more for football boots if they were endorsed?
o Yes......................
o No........................
13. If yes, how much more would you be willing to pay?_______________________
14. Can you name any female football boot endorsers?
o Yes......................
o No........................
15. If yes, can you name any products or services they endorse?
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
16. Do you agree that the use of athlete endorsement is an effective marketing
strategy for football boots?
o Yes......................
o No........................
59
17. Which method of endorsement or combination of methods do you feel would be
most effective for football boots?
o Athlete endorses the product.............................................
o Athlete uses the product....................................................
o Athlete recommends you should use the product..............
o Athlete appears in a setting with the product.....................
18. How important on a scale of 1 – 5 with 5 being the most important do you think
the following characteristics are for product endorsers? (5 – Extremely Important,
4 – Fairly Important, 3 – Important, 2 – Not so Important, 1 – Unimportant).
5+++++4+++++3+++++2+++++1
o Sporting Expertise (Success, Skill)...........
o Trustworthiness (Honesty, Believability)..
o Likeability (Character, Humour, Kind).........
o Physical Appearance (Attractiveness)........
19. Which advertising medium would you consider to be most effective in delivering
the message to potential customers?
o Print Media (Newspapers, Magazines, Billboards etc)...............
o Broadcast Media (Radio, Television, Internet etc)....................
o Both (Mixture of print and broadcast media)..............................
20. Can you think of any examples where football players have received negative
media exposure?
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
60
21. Would negative media exposure affect your likeliness to purchase a product
endorsed by that athlete?
o Yes......................
o No........................
22. If yes, why?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Thank You Very Much for Your Time
61
APPENDIX B
Questionnaire
The aims of this questionnaire are to determine how effective celebrity
athlete endorsers are in promoting football boots in the UK and if
credibility influences this effectiveness.
Q1
Please state your sex?


Male
Female
Q2
Please state your age?
Q3
What level of football do you play?
___________________________________________




Recreational
Club
County
International
Q4
If you play for a team, which team?
_______________________________________________________________________________
Q5
Who or which player first comes to mind when you think of the term athlete endorsement in
football?
_______________________________________________________________________________
Q6
For the selected player, can you name any products or services they endorse?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Q7
Would seeing a product endorsed by this player make you more likely to purchase it?


Yes
No
Q8
If Yes, what are the reasons for this?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Q9
Would you be more likely to buy a product if there was a match between product and endorser?


Yes
No
Q10
Have you purchased football boots because they were endorsed?


Yes
No
62
Q11
If yes, what are your reasons for this?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q12
Would you be prepared to pay more for football boots if they were endorsed?


Yes
No
Q13
If yes, how much more would you be willing to pay?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Q14
Can you name any female football boot endorsers?


Yes
No
Q15
If yes, can you name any products or services they endorse?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_________________
Q16
Do you agree that the use of athlete endorsement is an effective marketing strategy for football
boots?


Yes
No
Q17
Which method of endorsement or combination of methods do you feel would be effective for
marketing football boots?




Athlete endorses the product
Athlete uses the product
Athlete recommends you should use the product
Athlete appears in a setting with the product
Q18
How important do you think the following characteristics are for product endorsers?
Sporting Expertise (Success, Skill)
Trustworthiness (Honesty, Believability)
Likeability (Character, Humour, Kind)
Physical Appearance (Attractiveness)
Q19
Unimportant
Not so
Important
Important
Fairly Important
















Extremely
Important




Which advertising medium would you consider to be the most effective in delivering the message
to potential customer?
Print Media (Newspapers, Magazines, Billboards etc)
Broadcast Media (Radio, Television, Internet etc)
Both (Mixture of print and broadcast media)
63



Q20
Can you think of any examples where football players have received negative media exposure?


Yes
No
Q21
If yes, please tell me.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_________________
Q22
Would negative media exposure affect your likeliness to purchase a product endorsed by that
player?


Yes
No
Q23
If yes, why?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_________________
64
APPENDIX C
Title of Project: How effective are celebrity athlete endorsers in promoting
football boots in the UK and does credibility influence effectiveness?
Participant Information Sheet
The project was stimulated by an investigation into previous research carried out on
celebrity athlete endorsers and by reviewing literature in the area. It was found that
there is a lack of research on the effectiveness of celebrity endorsers in specific
sports and whether credibility contributes to their effectiveness. I want to find out
whether or not celebrity athlete endorsing players influence the purchase of specific
football boots on students playing for the University of Wales Institute Cardiff’s
football teams, and also the reasons for the purchase of specific football boots due to
the product being endorsed. By finding out this information it will become clear if
celebrity athlete endorsers effect purchasing of specific football boots and the
reasons for this. The results may also apply to football players in general and
specifically students.
This is an invitation to you to join the study, and let you know what this would involve.
The study will involve you completing a questionnaire.
If you want to find out more about the project, or if you need more information to help
you make a decision about joining in, please contact Philippa Gent on the telephone
number given at the bottom of this sheet, or email me.
Your Participation in the Research Project
Why you have been asked
I have selected 31 males and 31 females who play for the University of Wales
Institute Cardiff’s football teams using a random sampling technique. This has then
identified you as a participant for my investigation.
65
If I have made a mistake and you do not play for either the male or female football
team at the University of Wales Institute Cardiff then you will not be able to be
included in the study. Please accept my apologies for contacting you.
What happens if you want to change your mind?
If you decide to join the study you can change your mind and stop at any time. I will
completely respect your decision. If you want to stop it would help me if you could let
me know. There are absolutely no penalties for stopping.
What would happen if you join the study?
If you agree to join the study, then you will be asked to complete a questionnaire with
a series questions about the effect of celebrity endorsers on you. This will be brought
to you in a training session, and should take no more than 15 30 minutes to
complete.
Are there any risks?
I do not think there are any significant risks due to the study. I have piloted the study
and found that the questions were very straightforward to answer.
Your rights.
Joining the study does not mean you have to give up any legal rights. You have the
right to withdraw at any time. In the very unlikely event of something going wrong, the
University of Wales Institute Cardiff fully indemnifies its staff, and participants are
covered by its insurance.
What happens to the questionnaire results?
The results will be put into the computer to allow for easy analysis. All the information
from the study will then be analysed to find out if particular football boots are
purchased because they are endorsed by a celebrity athlete and the reasons for this.
Are there any benefits from taking part?
There are no direct benefits to you for taking part; however this study may help
indicate if celebrity athlete endorsers effect the purchasing of football boots and the
66
reasons for this. When the study is complete I will contact you and let you know what
was found out.
Your Privacy is Protected:
All the information I get from you is strictly confidential, and your privacy will be
respected. We have taken very careful steps to make sure that you cannot be
identified from any of the forms with confidential information that I keep about you. I
keep your name and address, and personal details completely separate from the
other forms, and there is no information on the other forms that could let anyone work
out who you are.
When I have finished the study and analysed the information, all the forms used to
gather data will be completely destroyed. I will keep the form with your name and
address and a copy of the attached consent form for 10 years, because I am required
to do so by the University.
PLEASE NOTE: YOU WILL BE GIVEN A COPY OF THIS SHEET TO KEEP,
TOGETHER WITH A COPY OF YOUR CONSENT FORM
Contact Details:
Philippa Gent. Telephone: 07849313785. Email: [email protected]
67
APPENDIX D
VOLUNTARY CONSENT FORM
Title of Project:
.
Name of Researcher:
How effective are celebrity athlete endorsers in promoting football
boots in the UK and does credibility influence effectiveness?
Philippa Gent
_________________________________________________________________
Participant to complete this section:
Please initial each box.
1. I confirm that I have read the information sheet and understand
what is required from me in this study. I have had the opportunity to
consider the information, ask questions and have had these
answered satisfactorily.
2. I understand that my participation is voluntary and
that it is possible to stop taking part at any time, without giving a
reason.
3. I also understand that if this happens, my relationships with the
with UWIC and my legal rights, will not be affected.
4. I understand that information from the study may be used for
reporting purposes.
5. I agree to take part in this investigation
__________________________________
Name of participant
_______________________________________________
_________________
Signature of participant
_______________________________________________
Name of person taking consent
_______________________________________________
Signature of person taking consent.
Date
_________________
Date