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What is Sociology?
Chapter 1
What is Sociology?
Scientific study of social structure.
Focus on sociological perspective…NOT the individual.
Sociological perspective = group level.
Social Sciences: How do they
compare?
Anthropology
cultures
Psychology
Human mental/emotional
processes
Economics
allocations of resources and
choices involving those resources.
Political Science
political structures.
History
past events of societies.
Sociology
Individual vs. Society
Many look to individual factors for reasoning, sociologists look to
group factors:
Divorce
individual reasons or societal influence?
Gangs
society has taught men to be masculine.
Suicide
pressures from societal expectations.
Sociologists group people:
Married women, young men, teens.
Groups
Individuals act differently when grouped.
Group Conformity: desire for members to
think, feel, behave similarly, regardless of
personal views
Conformity: members of the group have
been taught to value the group’s ways.
People may seem different, but societies
conform.
Sociological Imagination
The ability to see the influences of society on one’s
personal behaviors.
Allows us to make decisions without simply conforming.
The sociological imagination challenges Conventional
Social Wisdom:
Ideas that are presumed to be true
Global Socialogical Imagination
Globalized world influences sociological thinking.
High income countries: advanced technology and high standards of
living (U.S.).
Middle income countries: industrializing and increasing wealth (Eastern
Europe).
Low income countries: mainly agrarian and low income (many nations
in Africa).
Sociological Thinking
Why did scientists start studying groups of people?
Surge of Social Thinking
Industrialization -> urbanization -> social interaction.
New social classes
Population increase
People became consumers…not just producers
Diverse backgrounds worked together
New social problems began
Poor housing
Crowding
Unsanitary conditions
Poverty
Pollution
Crime
Early Thinkers
Early thinkers believed that by using reason (as used by
natural scientists) they could explain human behavior and
solve social problems
Auguste Comte
1798-1857
French philosopher considered to be the “founder of
sociology.”
Societies contained forces for social order and
stability (social statics) AND forces for conflict/change
(social dynamics).
POSITIVISM: a belief that the world can best be
understood through scientific inquiry (non-biased,
relative knowledge).
Harriet Martineau
1802-1876
Translated Comte’s work
Studied consequences of industrialization/
capitalism in Britain/US.
Explored status of women/children in
society.
Gender and racial equality.
Herbert Spencer
1820-1903
Social Darwinism
Individual parts work together to ensure
stability
Karl Marx
1818-1883
Society is a continuous clash between
two classes in society
Bourgeoisie: capitalist class
Proletariat: working class
Believed that conflict would result in a
class free society
Max Weber
1864-1920
Germany
Studied changes due to Industrial
Rev.
Believed economic interests shape
human action.
Emile Durkheim
Lived 1858-1917
Influential French sociologist, educator, and public
official
Studied the ties that bind society together
Mechanical solidarity
Traditional societies are united by social similarities
Organic solidarity
Modern societies are united by interdependence
Anomie
Rapid social change leads to loss of social norms
and produces many social problems
C. Wright Mills
1916-1962
Proponent of conflict theories (like Marx)
Sociologists need to get involved in
social reform
Power elite theory discussed later in the
course
Robert E. Park
1864-1944
University of Chicago (first sociology
department in US)
Urbanization had a negative influence
on society by increasing conflicts…
particularly involving crime and race.
George Herbert Mead
1863-1931
Symbolic interaction perspective
People act toward things based on the
meaning those things have for them; and
these meanings are derived from social
interaction and modified through
interpretation
W. E. B. Du Bois
1868-1963
Created sociology dept. at Atlanta
University
Researched Philadelphia’s African
American community
Noted that double consciousness, or
dual heritage, causes conflict for
people of color.
Review
What event spurred the idea of studying society?
What were the issues addressed?
Question of the Day
What are the four main theories of sociology?
Theoretical Perspectives
Theories
All sociologists look to define and examine social
interactions through various theories.
Functionalist perspective
Conflict perspective
Symbolic interactionism
Postmodern perspectives
These perspectives explain the processes of society.
Functionalism
Approach that emphasizes the contributions made by all parts of
society.
Assumes society is a stable, orderly system
All parts serve a function.
When one breaks down, others are affected
Economy, Government, Society etc…
Majority shares a societal consensus (common set of values and
beliefs).
The Functionalist Perspective
Parts of a social system work together to maintain a
balance
Functions are actions that have positive consequences
Dysfunctions are actions that have negative consequences
Manifest functions are intended
Latent functions are unintended
Ex: School
Manifest: teach skills
Latent: develop friendships
Conflict Perspective
While the functionalist perspective believes that people
work together to achieve common goals, the Conflict
Perspective beliefs that people are in constant
competition.
They look to promote their own values and beliefs
Those with the most power, control the behavior of others
Based on social inequality
The Conflict Perspective
Society is held together by who has power at a moment in
time
Power allows some to dominate others
Dominance leads to conflict
Conflict and change are inevitable
Conflict holds society together as new alliances are formed and others
fail
Those with the power create the change or maintain the balance
Symbolic Interactionism
Symbols
Something chosen that represents something else
Has an agreed upon meaning.
Think about the American Flag. What does that
represent?
The Symbolic Interaction
Perspective
Individuals construct the nature of their social world through social
interaction
Social life is possible only because humans can communicate through
symbols
All human communications take place through the perception and
interpretation of symbols
What is the meaning of the symbol?
How people define situations determines their behavior in the situation
Shouting at a funeral vs. shouting at a game
Society is maintained by the action of individual behaviors.
Postmodern Perspectives
Continuing to evolve
Rejects all previous perspectives
They have not been successful in defining social life in contemporary
society
Based on the effects of globalization, consumerism, and
mass communication through technology.
Major Theoretical Perspectives
Perspective
View of Society
Functionalist
Sees society as a system of parts that
work together to maintain cohesion.
Conflict
Sees society as a collection of parts held
together by social power.
Major Theoretical Perspectives
Perspective
View of Society
Symbolic
Interactionist
Sees society as socially constructed by
everyday encounters between people.
Postmodernist
Postindustrialization, consumerism, and
global communications bring into
question assumptions about social life and
the nature of reality.
The Research Process
Research
The systematic process of collecting information for the
purpose of testing an existing theory or developing a new
one.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative.
Causation: the belief that events occur in predictable ways
and that one event leads to another.
Quantitative Research
Conducting research by using numerical data
gathering and statistical analysis to make
conclusions
Looking at rate of
Number of incidences
Percentages
Example:
How many students have lunch 6th period?
Mean, Median, Mode
Used for analysis of quantitative data
Mean: the average
Median: the number that divides a series of numbers in
half
Mode: the number that occurs most frequently.
Qualitative Research
Using interpretive descriptions to conclude findings.
Looking for themes and attitudes
Example:
Why do students like to have lunch 6th period?
Steps in the Research Process
Select and define the problem
What are you going to study?
Review previous research
What has already been studied? What has been found? Where are there gaps?
Formulate the Hypothesis
Statement of relationship between variables.
Variable…any concept with measurable traits or characteristics that can change or vary from
one person, time, culture etc… to another
Independent Variable…the cause
Dependant Variable…what will change
Steps in the Research Process
Develop the Research design
What is the unit of analysis (who or what will you study)? How will you
study?
Collect and analyze data
Create your sample
Population …all those people with the characteristics that one wants to study
Sample…limited number from the population.
Representative sample…selection from a larger population that has specific
characteristics.
Random sample…choosing the members from the sample at random
Steps in the Research Process
Draw conclusions.
What did you find?
Does the study possess validity and reliability?
Validity …did the study measure what it was supposed to?
Reliability …will the study show the same results if used again?
Did it support your hypothesis?
Where there limitations to the study?
Problems with the sample? Problems with the variables? Etc…
Report your findings.
Research Methods
Survey
Survey: people answer a variety of questions
Most widely used form
Questionnaires or interviews
Questionnaire: participants answer themselves
Interview: questions are asked and recorded
Close ended questions: answers are provided (multiple choice)
Open ended: participants can provide answers
Close-ended surveys
Advantages
Disadvantages
  Easy to compare
  Expensive
  Statistics can be used to
make sense of data
  Responses are limited
  Large number of
responses can be
collected.
  Many people don’t
respond
  Questions can be leading
Secondary Analysis
Analyzing data that has already been collected.
Ex: looking at the census for information
Advantages
  Inexpensive
  Researchers can not
influence answers
  Longevity
Disadvantages
  May not be a
representative sample
  Outdated
  Are collection methods
accurate?
Field Research (Qualitative)
Case Study
Participant Observation
  Looking at a particular
group in action.
  Researcher becomes a
member of the group.
  Observation and
interpretation
  Disadvantages
  Advantages
  Provides deep
understanding
  Unexpected discoveries
  Lengthy
  Presence of researcher
can influence
  Hard to duplicate
Experiment
Controlled situation where the researcher studies the
impact of certain variables.
Correlation must be shown to demonstrate the impact of the variables.
Correlation: a relationship between two variables that is shown more
frequently than chance
Positive correlation
Negative correlation
Ethics in Research
Proper ethics must be followed in research
Researchers must maintain integrity and disclose all findings.
Researchers must safeguard identity and dignity of participants while
keeping them from harm.
Researchers must protect information given by participants.
Researchers must acknowledge collaboration and assistance that they
receive.