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THE WORLD OF ST PAUL
Lecture notes by Rev John Castle
The Roman Empire
The city of Rome was founded in 753 BC, and gradually expanded its influence over the whole of Italy and
beyond. In 146 BC the Romans defeated the Carthaginian Empire, and then acquired further territory by
conquest or by bequest from local rulers. A major motivation in the expansion of the Empire was to gain
control over trade, food and mineral resources, and to secure the borders of their territories from attack by
enemies. The Empire was divided into provinces, each ruled by a prefect or procurator. Pontius Pilate (AD
26-36), Felix (52-60) and Festus (60-62) were governors of Palestine mentioned in the NT. The Romans also
used client kings to rule countries on the edge of the Empire, such as King Herod the Great and later
members of his family.
References to such rulers who are known from other historical sources enable us to date many events in the
NT. Thus, Paul must have been imprisoned in Caesarea from 58-60 AD when Felix was governor. Another
example is the reference to the procurator Gallio in Acts 18:12f. Gallio was the brother of a Roman writer
Seneca and is also mentioned by Pliny, Tacitus and Dio Cassius. We know that he was proconsul of Asia in
52-53 AD, and so we know that Paul was in Corinth at this time.
So
The Roman Army
The army was made up of legions, each of which contained 5,000 - 6,000 men. By the time of Christ, the
Emperor Augustus had 28 legions. Each legion was divided into 10 cohorts, commanded by a tribune, and
each of these consisted of 6 centuries of 80-100 men, each under the command of a centurion. There are
references to centurions in the Gospels and Acts. Auxiliary cohorts were additional units, not part of the
main legions. The Italian Cohort of which Cornelius was a centurion (Acts 10:1), is mentioned in an
inscription that has been found. The armour of a Roman soldier is described by Paul in Ephesians 6:14-17.
(For other references to Roman soldiers see: Luke 7:1-10, Mark 15:39, Acts 10:1, 21:31-33, 27:1f)
The Pax Romana (Roman Peace)
The reign of Augustus (also known as Octavian) as princeps (i.e. emperor) from 27 BC brought to an end a
long period of civil war between different Roman leaders. The absence of war within the Roman empire
encouraged trade to flourish. In addition to travel by ship, Roman roads and the protection of the army
made long journeys possible. This peace and security enabled the Gospel to spread so quickly. By the time
Paul wrote his letter to the Romans, in 53-54 AD (about 20-25 years after the crucifixion), the gospel had
already reached the capital of the Empire, more than 2,000 km away from Jerusalem.
Citizens and slaves in the Roman Empire
Not all people in the Empire had equal rights. The status of Roman Citizen gave one the right to special
protection, exemption from certain taxes and the legal right for one's case to be heard by the Emperor. It
belonged to those in the provinces who were descendants of Roman colonists. It could also be bought. Paul
and Silas were both Roman citizens, (see Acts 16:37-39, 22:25-29, 23:27, 25:11-12, 26:32, 28:19).
At the other end of the scale were slaves, who had no rights at all (in contrast to the rights granted to Jewish
slaves in the Torah). Not all were treated badly, however. Some slaves had important responsibilities in the
homes and businesses of the rich, and were highly skilled Some were freed by their masters, or were able
to buy their freedom. The Greek word doulos (fem. doule) in the NT is frequently translated servant, but in
fact it means slave (e.g. Lk1:38,48, 7:2-10, 12:42-47, Acts 16:17, Rom 1:1, Phil 2:7). Paul describes himself
and his co-workers as “slaves of Jesus Christ” (Philipp. 1:1).
Religion in the Roman Empire
The Romans adopted the Greek gods and gave them their own names. Zeus (Latin Juppiter) was the chief of
the gods. When Paul and Barnabas preached in Lystra (Acts 14:12), they were identified with Hermes (the
messenger of the gods) and Zeus. The political stability and economic prosperity of the Roman Empire
proved fertile ground for the spread of religious and philosophical ideas. Other religions, such as the Persian
cult of Mithras, also gained popularity. Paul's proclamation of Jesus in Athens was treated as teaching about
more "foreign divinities" (Acts 17:18). Greek philosophy was also influential. In Athens, Paul debates with
representatives of two main schools of thought, the Epicureans and Stoics, and quotes from Epimenides and
Aratus of Cilicia. (17:28).
In such a polytheistic climate, the cult of the Emperor as a god was considered perfectly normal, and an
expression of political loyalty. The Jews, however, had some measure of protection for their faith under
Roman law, and were not expected to worship other gods. The emperor Gaius (Caligula), however, gave
orders for a statue of himself to be erected in the Jerusalem Temple, and a major confrontation was only
avoided because Gaius died. Early Christians would have been recognised as one of many small sectarian
groups within Judaism, but as Christianity became less Jewish, Christians later came into conflict with the
Roman authorities because they refused to worship the Emperor. This conflict is probably being referred to
in the vision in Revelation 13, where all the inhabitants of the earth have to worship the Beast.
Palestine during the New Testament Period
The Jews had been ruled by successive Empires: Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, the Ptolomies (Egypt), the
Seleucids (Syria). In 63 BC the Roman general Pompey established a Roman Protectorate over Palestine,
under which the Jewish kings of the Hasmonaean family continued to rule. In 37 BC Herod the Great, who
was of Idumaean origin, began to rule as king at the invitation of the Romans, at the age of 22. This Herod
began the building of a new Temple, and he is the King Herod mentioned in Matthew chapter 2. On his
death in 4 BC, the Romans divided his territory between three of his children. Herod Antipas ruled Galilee
and Peraea as tetrarch, and Herod Philip ruled territory to the north-east of Galilee (see Luke 3:1). Archelaus
ruled Judaea (see Mt 2:22), but after a deputation of Jews and Samaritans complained to Rome, he was
deposed in 6 AD and replaced with a Roman governor. Herod Antipas is mentioned several times in the
Gospels. According to Luke, Jesus was sent to Herod Antipas by Pilate because he came from Nazareth in
Galilee, one of the areas ruled by Antipas.
The governor during the ministry of Jesus was Pontius Pilate (AD 26-36). According to Josephus and Philo
(see below), Pilate was insensitive to the Jewish people and cruel (see also Luke 13:1). Several complaints
were made about him to Rome, and eventually complaints from the Samaritans led to his being recalled to
Rome. This background helps us to understand Pilate’s behaviour in sentencing Jesus to death.
Later, the Romans allowed the grandson of Herod the Great, Herod Agrippa I, to rule Judaea as king (41-44
AD). It was he who executed James the brother of John and imprisoned Peter (Acts12). After him there was
a series of Roman governors, including Felix (AD 52-60) and Festus (AD 60-62), during whose rule Paul was
imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 24-26).
One of the best sources of Jewish history of the first century is the Jewish writer Josephus, who was born in
Jerusalem about 36/7 AD and died at the beginning of the 2nd century. He was a general in the revolt
against Rome in 66-73 AD, which he describes in The Jewish War, and which resulted in the destruction of
Jerusalem and its Temple in 70 AD.
Culture and Language
The principal language spoken in the eastern part of the Empire was Greek, due to the conquests of
Alexander the Great (d. 323 BC) and the spread of Greek culture and education that followed. Greek was
even preferred by the educated people in Rome. The common type of Greek spoken throughout the Empire
was known as koine and is the language in which the NT is written. It would have been spoken by many
people in Palestine, especially in Galilee which was on a major trade route. The existence of a common
language was a major reason why the Gospel could spread so quickly.
There were many Hellenistic cities in Palestine, i.e. run on Greek lines. These included the Decapolis, a
region of 10 towns on the east of the Jordan. Jews outside Palestine, known as the Dispersion or Diaspora,
lived throughout the Empire and further afield (see Acts 2:5-11), and formed the vast majority of the Jewish
population. They mostly used the Greek translation of the Old Testament, known as the Septuagint (Greek
for 70) after the 72 scribes who according to tradition had translated it in the 3rd Century BC in Alexandria
in Egypt. This is the version of the OT which is quoted by NT writers, and this explains why the quotations
sometimes differ slightly from the Hebrew text of the OT on which modern English translations are based.
The language spoken by Palestinian Jews (and therefore Jesus) was Aramaic, a sister language to Hebrew.
Hellenistic Jews adopted many of the customs of Greek culture, and there were Greek-speaking synagogues
in Palestine. Hellenistic Jews in the Jerusalem church complained that their widows were being
discriminated against in the distribution of food (Acts 6:1). Paul argued with Hellenists in Jerusalem (Acts
9:29), and most of the synagogues he visited on his travels would have been Hellenistic.
The vision and strategy of St Paul
The Acts of the Apostles tells the story of Paul's conversion from being a fanatical Pharisee and persecutor
of the Church to being one of Christianity's most effective missionaries. He had a strong belief that God had
given him a mission to the Gentiles (i.e. non-Jews), and argued strongly that they should be exempt from
following the Jewish laws on circumcision, food and festivals. This brought him into conflict with other
Jewish Christians, and he was exasperated to find that some of his Gentile converts were later being
persuaded to follow Jewish laws (see especially his letter to the Galatians).
Paul's strategy in spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ was to go to the leading city of an area, and to begin
by talking about Jesus in the local synagogue, where he found not only fellow-Jews but Gentiles who were
already sympathetic to the Jewish faith. His usual experience was to be rejected by the synagogue
authorities, but the Jews and non-Jews who believed his message would form the nucleus of a new church.
Paul also was at pains to develop local Christians who had leadership potential, and his letters mention
many of the co-workers he trained up in this way, including Timothy, Titus, Trophimus and Tychicus, whom
he sent to preach and lead in several of his new churches. A Jewish couple, Prisca and Aquila, became key
colleagues of Paul, working in Ephesus, Corinth and Rome, and another of Paul's protégé's, Epaphras,
founded the church in Colossae. Paul supported himself and his co-workers financially through his trade as a
tent-maker, as well as through gifts from individuals and some of his churches.
A Time Chart of New Testament History
Date
BC 37-4
6-4
AD 26-28
26-36
30
c.33
c.34
41-44
47-48
49
49-52
54-58
58-60
60-63?
62
63-4
64
66-73
70
70-90
88-95
Event
writing of NT books
Herod the Great
Birth of Jesus
Ministry of Jesus begins
Pilate procurator of Judea
Death of Jesus; founding of Jerusalem Church
Martyrdom of Stephen
Conversion of Saul/Paul
Herod Agrippa I king of Judea
Paul's first journey
Galatians?
Jerusalem Conference
Paul's second journey
1 & 2 Thessalonians
Paul's third journey
1 Corinthians; Galatians?
2 Corinthians; Romans
Paul imprisoned in Palestine
Paul under arrest in Rome
Philippians; Ephesians; Colossians
James, brother of Jesus, martyred
1 Peter (2 Peter?)
Martyrdom of Peter and Paul
1 & 2 Timothy, Titus;
Jewish revolt
Mark
Fall of Jerusalem
Luke, Acts; Matthew; John
Persecution of Christians
Hebrews; 1, 2, & 3 John;
Revelation; ?Jude, 2 Peter
NB the dating of NT books is not certain, and different scholars hold differing views about authorship and
dating, for example, some have dated Jude, James and 2 Peter in the 2nd Century.
The Canon of the NT
The NT consists of 27 books:
4 Gospels:
Matthew, Mark, Luke, John
The Acts of the Apostles
The Letters of Paul:
Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians,
1 Thessalonians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon
The "Catholic" Letters:
Hebrews, James, 1 Peter, 2 Peter, 1 John, 2 John, 3 John, Jude
The Revelation to John
The Canon of the NT as we know it now, was not fixed until the Council of Carthage in 397 AD, although
quotations from some of the NT books in other Christian writings of the 2nd Century show that they were in
circulation and had some authority at that time, and there are also lists of books considered authoritative in
the second and third centuries. All the NT books (and 3 others) are mentioned in a letter of Athanasisus of
367.
Background to the Second Letter to Timothy
2 Timothy is it is known is one of the three letters addressed to a church leader, dealing with pastoral
matters in the churches he is leading, and containing personal messages of advice and encouragement. For
this reason they are known as the Pastoral Epistles.
Since the nineteenth century, many scholars have cast doubt on whether they were actually written by Paul,
as they purport to be. The reasons given why Paul may not have been the author concern perceived
differences in style and content between these three letters and others by Paul. There is also uncertainty as
to where these letters fit in the career of Paul as recounted in the Acts of the Apostles, and the Pastoral
Epistles are also thought to assume a more developed form of church organisation. Explanations of these
problems have been explained, e.g. by Paul using a secretary to help him write his letters to the churches,
and by the different purpose of the letters (addressed to individuals, not whole congregations. It is also
pointed out that according to later documents of the early church there do not appear to have been any
doubts that Paul was the author of these three letters (unlike the letter to the Hebrews, for example).
Date and time of writing
Paul's words in 2 Tim 1:8, 2:9 imply that Paul is a prisoner at the time of writing. 4:16 seems to refer to a
first court hearing, and 4:6-8 imply that Paul believes he has come to the end of his life – we may interpret
this as meaning he believes he is likely to be executed.
We know from Acts 21-28 that Paul was arrested in Jerusalem, accused by the Jewish authorities of various
crimes and held (partly for his own protection) by the governor Felix for two years (58-60 AD) at Caesarea,
the Roman administrative headquarters in Palestine. When Festus took over as Governor, Paul decided to
exercise his right as a Roman citizen and ask for his case to be referred to the emperor (which was Nero at
the time). When he finally arrived at Rome (after a difficult journey which involved a shipwreck), he was
allowed to live under guard in his own rented accommodation for two years. At this point Acts ends, and we
do not know what happened to Paul next. A later tradition says that he was released and made further
journeys, after which he was re-arrested and executed around AD 64 by Nero as part of his persecution of
Christians in Rome. 2 Timothy was almost certainly written in Rome, and Paul clearly believes he will soon
die.
Who was Timothy?
Acts 16:1-3 tells us that Paul met Timothy on his second visit to the town of Lystra in southern Galatia (in
modern Turkey). Timothy's mother was Jewish and his father Greek, and Timothy was already a Christian. In
2 Timothy 1:5 Paul describes the faith of Timothy's mother and grandmother which had influenced
Timothy. From then on, Timothy accompanied Paul, and Paul entrusted him with special missions. In 1
Timothy, Paul appears to have left Timothy in charge of the church in Ephesus, a very important strategic
centre for the spread of the Christian faith. Hebrews 13:23 (by another author) mentions that Timothy was
later imprisoned and released.
Issues raised in 2 Timothy
Paul tells Timothy that the churches in the province of Asia (now western Turkey) have turned away from
him (2 Tim 1:15). He is concerned about particular individuals who are teaching false interpretations of the
Christian message (2:16-18), and those who are exploiting weaker members of the church for their own
advantage (3:6-9).
Generally, Paul is concerned that as time goes on Christians who started off well in their faith will be
influenced by lax moral standards all around them (3:1-5), and will start following false teachers who tell
them what they want to hear (4:3-4).
Paul seeks to encourage Timothy not to be daunted by these problems, but to teach the Christian faith
fearlessly and skilfully, without being distracted by arguments about minor points. Paul urges him to follow
the example of his own behaviour and not be be afraid to suffer, if necessary, for the sake of the gospel.
Questions for discussion in groups
1. What is Paul's situation as he is writing this letter? (see 1:15-17, 2:9, 4:16)
2. What challenges does Paul expect in the future? (see 3:13, 4:3-4)
3. If you were Paul, what sort of things might be going through your mind as you faced this situation?
4. How similar are the problems facing the church today (both locally and worldwide)?
5. What other hopes and fears do you have for the church in this place, in our nation or in the world?
Questions for discussion in groups
1. What is Paul's situation as he is writing this letter? (see 1:15-17, 2:9, 4:16)
2. What challenges does Paul expect in the future? (see 3:13, 4:3-4)
3. If you were Paul, what sort of things might be going through your mind as you faced this situation?
4. How similar are the problems facing the church today (both locally and worldwide)?
5. What other hopes and fears do you have for the church in this place, in our nation or in the world?
Questions for discussion in groups
1. What is Paul's situation as he is writing this letter? (see 1:15-17, 2:9, 4:16)
2. What challenges does Paul expect in the future? (see 3:13, 4:3-4)
3. If you were Paul, what sort of things might be going through your mind as you faced this situation?
4. How similar are the problems facing the church today (both locally and worldwide)?
5. What other hopes and fears do you have for the church in this place, in our nation or in the world?