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2
Language Learning
Chapter 2
Lecture 4
2nd Language Learners
• All 2nd language learners have already acquired one
language. Therefore…
• Some researchers believe that this is an advantage,
because with that 2nd language learners will already
have an idea on how languages work.
• Other researchers believe that having knowledge of
another language may lead 2nd language learners to
make incorrect guesses on how the 2nd language
works.
Differences between children &
adults in learning a language
• Differences between children and adults in learning a language
can be summarized in 3 main points:
1. Cognitive differences.
Children do not have the cognitive maturity and metalinguistic
awareness that adults have.
This cognitive ability allows adults to engage in discussions about
languages. Whereas children do not have this ability.
Cognitive maturity: The ability to engage in problem-solving,
deduction, and complex memory tasks.
Metalinguistic awareness: The ability to treat language as an object.
Differences between children &
adults in learning a language
2. Attitudinal and cultural differences:
- Most children language learners are willing to try to
use the language even if their proficiency level is quite
low.
- They are allowed to be silent until ready to speak.
- They mostly practice language through songs and
games and with that their voices are blended with
others.
Adults are reluctant when trying to use the language.
They also find it stressful when they are unable to express
themselves correctly.
Differences between children &
adults in learning a language
3. Time in contact with language:
- Children spend hours in contact with their first language.
They are also exposed to the language in other social
settings other than the home, for example the playground,
the classroom and even the television.
- Exposed to a large range of discourse type.
- Adults receive far less exposure to the language. Their
exposure is only limited to the language classes they take.
- Exposed to a smaller range of discourse type. Usually
formal discourse.
Differences between children &
adults in language learning
• There is one similarity between all language
learners regardless of age (adults & children)
which is, exposure to modified or adapted
speech.
• Similar to child-directed speech (last lecture),
there is foreigner talk.
• Foreigner talk: modified or simplified language
that native speakers address to 2nd language
learners.
Studying the language of 2nd language
learners
• We have seen in Ch. 1 that there are developmental
sequences for children who are learning a language.
• Is this the same for 2nd language learners?
• Does their 1st language affect the acquisition of their
2nd language?
• Researchers started to observe the errors of 2nd
language learners in order to determine their progress.
For example, the less the errors are the better the
progress. However, this is not a satisfactory
explanation.
Studying the language of 2nd language
learners
• The reason for that is because sometimes an
increase in an error can be a sign of progress.
• For example, 2nd language learners usually
learn the irregular past tense forms of
common verbs before they learn to apply the
regular past –ed marker.
Studying the language of 2nd language
learners
• Meaning a learner who says “I buyed a bus ticket”
may know more about English than one who says
“I bought a bus ticket”.
• We cannot conclude that the one who says
(bought) would use the regular past –ed marker
where it is required. However, the learner who
says (buyed) provides evidence of the knowledge
of a systematic aspect of English.
Studying the language of 2nd language
learners
• From the previous example, we go into details
about approaches invented by researchers to
study the errors of language learners.
• These approaches are:
1. Contrastive analysis (CA)
2. Error analysis
3. Interlanguage
Contrastive analysis
• Contrastive analysis hypothesis:
Errors are assumed to be results of transfer
from the learner’s 1st language.
Transfer/Interference:
The influence of a learner’s 1st language knowledge
in the 2nd language.
(It is now preferred to be called ‘Cross-linguistic
influence’.)
Contrastive analysis
• However, detailed analysis of language
learners’ errors could not always be explained
by this theory.
• For ex, according to the CAH, French speakers
learning English and English speakers learning
French would make errors on parallel linguistic
features. However, that was not the case.
Contrastive analysis
• For ex,
• In simple English sentences, direct objects whether nouns
or pronouns come after the verb. (The dog eats the cookie)
`
• In French, direct objects that are nouns follow the verb.
(The dog eats the cookie)
However, direct objects that are pronouns precede the verb.
(The dog it eats)
According to your understanding of CAH, how would the
errors of speakers of these languages be explained?
Contrastive analysis
• The CAH would predict that a native speaker
of French might say (the dog it eats) when
learning English.
• After analyzing their speech, however, it was
found that French-speaking learners of
English, seeing no evidence that English direct
object pronouns precede verbs, do not use
this pattern from their 1st language.
Error analysis
• Because many aspects of learners’ language couldn’t be explained
by the CAH, a different approach was taken- error analysis.
• Error analysis: is detailed descriptions of the errors 2nd language
learners make.
• It divides the errors in to errors & mistakes. Also divides errors into
different categories.
• It does not predict learners’ errors, as the CAH, but it sought to
discover & describe different kinds of errors in an effort to try and
understand how learners process 2nd language data.
Interlanguage
• Interlanguage:
A learner’s developing 2nd language knowledge. It may have
characteristics of the learner’s 1st language, characteristics of
the 2nd language and some characteristics that are general in
all interlanguage systems.
Interlanguage is characterized by 3 points:
1. Systematic. (It has rules. Not necessarily correct rules, but
has rules.)
2. Dynamic (Although systematic, its rules may change
depending on the input the learner receives)
3. Variable (it depend on the input the learner receives)