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Animal Systems
Ap Biology
Organization
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The human body is an orderly assembly of parts
(anatomy).
Macromolecules (proteins, lipids, nucleic acids
and carbohydrates) join to form cells.
Cells join to form ________.
There are ________ types of tissue: epithelial,
connective, muscular and nervous.
These tissues join together to form ________,
such as the heart or the stomach.
Organs may interact to form organ ________
such as the digestive system.
____________(balance) allows for the stable
functioning (physiology) of all our combined
parts.
Epithelium
• Epithelial tissue ________
the surface of the body and
lines its cavities and tubes.
– One surface is free and faces either the
environment or a body fluid; the other adheres to
a basement membrane, a densely packed layer
of proteins and polysaccharides.
– Cells are linked tightly together; there may be
one or more layers.
Epithelium
•
There are two basic types of epithelia.
– ________ ___________is a single layer of cells
functioning as a lining for body cavities, ducts,
and tubes.
• Simple epithelium functions in diffusion,
secretion, absorption, or filtering of
substances across the cell layer.
• _______________epithelium is a single layer
of cells that looks like a double layer; most
of the cells are ciliated; examples are found
in the respiratory passages and
reproductive tracts.
–
________ ___________has many layers—as
in human skin.
Epithelium
– Both simple and stratified epithelium can be
subdivided into groups based on shape at the
tissue surface:
• __________epithelium consists of flattened cells;
examples are found in the lining of the blood vessels.
• __________epithelium has cube-shaped cells;
examples are found in glands.
• __________epithelium has elongated cells; examples
are found in the intestine.
Epithelium
cilia
columnar
cells
basement
membrane
TYPE: Simple squamous
TYPE: Simple cuboidal
DESCRIPTION: FrictionDESCRIPTION: Single layer
reducing slick, single layer of of squarish cells
flattened cells
COMMON LOCATIONS:
COMMON LOCATIONS:
Ducts, secretory part of
Lining of blood and lymph
small glands; retina; kidney
vessels, heart; air sacs of
tubules; ovaries, testes;
lungs; peritoneum
bronchioles
FUNCTION: Diffusion;
filtration; secretion of
lubricants
FUNCTION: Secretion;
absorption
TYPE: Simple columnar
DESCRIPTION: Single layer of tall
cells; free surface may have cilia,
mucus-secreting glandular cells,
microvilli
COMMON LOCATIONS: Glands,
ducts; gut; parts of uterus; small
bronchi
FUNCTION: Secretion; absorption;
ciliated types move substances
Connective Tissue
•
____________________binds together,
supports, and anchors body parts; it is the
most abundant tissue in the body.
–
–
Fibrous connective tissues and specialized connective tissues are
both found in the body.
Fiber-like structural proteins and polysaccharides secreted by the
cells make up a __________ (ground substance) around the cells
that can range from hard to liquid.
Connective Tissues
– ____________________is composed of collagen,
ground substance, and calcium salts; minerals
harden bone so it is capable of supporting and
protecting body tissues and organs.
– ____________________cells are specialized for
the storage of fat; most adipose tissue lies just
beneath the skin.
– __________contains a dense array of fibers in a
rubbery ground substance; cartilage can withstand
great stress but heals slowly when damaged.
Muscle Tissue: Movement
•
____________________contracts in response to
stimulation, then passively lengthens; movement is
a highly coordinated action.
•
There are three types of muscle:
– __________muscle tissue attaches to bones for
voluntary movement; long muscle cells are bundled
together in parallel arrays, which are enclosed in a
sheath of dense connective tissue.
- __________muscle tissue contains tapered, bundled
cells that function in involuntary movement; it lines the
gut, blood vessels, and glands.
– __________muscle is composed of short cells that
can function in units due to the signals that pass
through
special junctions that fuse the cells together; cardiac
muscle is only found in the wall of the heart.
Nervous Tissue: Communication
•
•
__________ __________ consists mainly of cells,
including neurons (nerve cells) and support cells;
nervous tissue forms the body’s communication
network.
Neurons carry messages.
– __________ have two types
of cell processes (extensions):
branched dendrites pick up
chemical messages and pass
them to an outgoing axon.
Nervous Tissue:
Communication
– A cluster of processes from different neurons is
called a __________ .
– Nerves move messages throughout the body.
• Neuroglia are support cells.
cells (neuroglia) make
up 90 percent of the nervous
system. Neuroglia provide
physical support for neurons.
– Other glial cells provide
nutrition (astrocytes), clean-up,
and insulation services (Schwann cells).
– __________
Figure 4.5b
Organs and Organ Systems
• Eleven organ systems (integumentary,
nervous, muscular, skeletal, circulatory,
endocrine, lymphatic, respiratory,
digestive, urinary, and reproductive)
contribute to the survival of the living
cells of the body.
The Integument
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Humans have an outer covering called the
______________, which includes the skin and the
structures derived from epidermal cells including
oil and sweat glands, hair, and nails.
The skin performs several functions:
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–
•
The skin covers and protects the body from abrasion,
bacterial attack, ultraviolet radiation, and dehydration.
It helps control internal temperature.
Its receptors are essential in detecting environmental
stimuli.
The skin produces vitamin D.
Epidermis and dermis—the two layers of skin.
The Integument
refers to the thin, outermost layers of cells
consisting of stratified, squamous epithelium.
–
__________
•
_______________produce keratin; when the cells are finally
•
–
The __________ is the thicker portion of the skin that
underlies the epidermis.
•
•
–
pushed to the skin surface, they have died, but the keratin
fibers remain to make the outermost layer of skin (the stratum
corneum) tough and waterproof.
Deep in the epidermis are melanin-producing cells
(________________________); melanin, which contribute to the
natural coloration of skin.
The dermis is mostly dense connective tissue, consisting of
elastin and collagen fibers.
Blood vessels, hair follicles, nerve endings, and glands are
located here.
The ___________________is a subcutaneous layer that
anchors the skin; fat is also stored here.
smooth muscle
melanocyte
sweat pore
sebaceous gland
Langerhans cell
keratinized layer
living layer
hair shaft
EPIDERMIS
keratinocyte
Granstein cell
DERMIS
HYPODERMIS
adipose cells
nerve fiber
hair follicle
pressure receptor
sweat gland
•
The Integument
Sweat glands and other structures are derived
from epidermis.
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Sweat glands secrete a fluid (mostly water with a little
dissolved salt) that is useful in regulating the
temperature of the body.
Oil (_____________) glands function to soften and
lubricate the hair and skin; acne is a condition in which
the ducts become infected by bacteria.
Hairs are flexible, ________________structures rooted in
the skin and projecting above the surface; growth is
influenced by genes, nutrition, and hormones.
Homeostasis: The Body in Balance
•
Feedback mechanisms are important homeostatic
controls.
–
A common homeostatic mechanism is __________
_________________ .
•
–
It is similar to the functioning of a thermostat in a
heating/cooling system; an example is how your body regulates
its temperature.
mechanisms may intensify the
original signal; childbirth is an example.
__________ _____________
STIMULUS
After
overexertion
on a hot, dry
day, surface
temperature
of body rises.
RESPONSE
Body temperature
falls,receptors
initiate shifts
in effector output.
receptors
In skin and
elsewhere;
detect the
temperature
change.
effectors
integrator
Pituitary gland
& thyroid gland
trigger
widespread
adjustments in
many body
organs.
The hypothalamus,
a brain region,
compares input
from the receptors
against the set
point for the body.
Effectors
These carry out specific responses, including:
Skeletal
muscles in
chest wall
work to get
additional
oxygen into
lungs.
Smooth muscle in
blood vessels
dilates; blood
transporting
metabolic heat
shunted to skin;
some heat lost to
surroundings.
Sweat
glands
secrete
more,
with cooling
effect on
the brain
especially.
Overall slowing of activity results in
less metabolically generated heat.
Thermoregulation
____________ organisms that can control their internal
body temperature
____________ organisms that are the same temperature
as their environment
Ways organisms thermoregulate:
1. Cooling by evaporation- ____________
2. Warming by metabolism- ____________ contraction
generates heat
3. Adjusting surface area- ____________ (blood vessels
get bigger to release excess heat) and ____________
(blood vessels get smaller to conserve heat)
The Respiratory System
All animals require oxygen to perform _________________ , to
produce _______ . Different mechanisms for acquiring
oxygen have evolved:
1. ____________ contact with environment- flatworms are thin
enough that oxygen just diffuses into their cells
2. ____________ these are structures that are allow for
countercurrent exchange- where water and the underlying
blood flow in opposite directions to allow for oxygen to
diffuse
3. ____________ insects have chitin-lined tubes called trachae
(the holes to these tubes are called spiracles) that permeate
their bodies and allow oxygen to come in
4. ____________ are cavities in animals that allow for oxygen
to diffuse
Tracheal systems in insects
Countercurrent
exchange in fish gills
Nasal Cavity
Oral Cavity (mouth)
Pharynx (throat)
Epiglottis
Larynx (voice box)
Pleural
Membrane
Trachea (windpipe)
Intercostal
Muscles
Lung (one of a pair)
Bronchial Tree
Diaphragm
bronchiole
alveolar duct
alveolar sac
(sectioned)
alveolar
sac
alveoli
pulmonary capillary
Gas Exchange in Humans
Air flows through the following:
1. Nose or Mouth
2. ____________(throat)- also shared with digestive
system
3. ____________ the voicebox that contains the vocal
chords
4. ____________ tube that branches into two bronchi
which enter the lungs and then branch repeatedly into
smaller tubes called bronchioles
5. ____________ each bronchiole tube ends in a small
sac (alveoli) that is surrounded by capillaries that pick up
oxygen
Respiration in Humans
Oxygen ____________ diffuses into blood and is is
carried by ____________ found in red blood cells.
The oxygen will later be released to cells in the body to
use.
Carbon dioxide produced by the bodies tissues is
release into the bloodstream. The carbon dioxide
passively diffuses out of capillaries and into the lungs to
be exhaled. Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood
as dissolved bicarbonate.
When carbon dioxide dissolves in the blood it causes
the blood to become more ____________ .
Homeostasis of Oxygen & CO2 levels
____________ are receptors that
can detect chemicals.
Chemoreceptors located in your
carotid arteries (which supply blood
to the brain) monitor blood ____
When carbon dioxide levels increase,
the pH of the blood drops and the
Chemoreceptors send nerve
impulses to signal to _________
oblongata in the brain which signals to the
____________ (muscles below your lungs) and
____________ muscles (in between your ribs) to
increase your breathing rate.
Breathing is controlled using ____________ feedback.
The Circulatory System
Large organisms need a way to carry oxygen and
nutrients around the body and to remove wastes.
There are two basic types of circulatory systems:
•____________ circulatory systems- have no blood
vessels and no blood. Instead, use a substance called
hemolymph to carry oxygen and the hemolymph
directly bathes cells. Occurs in insects.
•____________ circulatory systems- blood is confined
to vessels such as arteries, veins, and capillaries.
Blood Vessels
____________ carry blood away from the heart.
____________ branch from arteries.
____________ branch from arterioles. Are the smallest type of
blood vesseles. Are only one cell thick and are so small that blood
cells move through them in a single file line. This allows for
efficient diffusion.
_________ where blood
moves from capillaries,
starts to take blood back
to heart
______ return blood to the
heart. Are larger than
capillaries, and have valves
in them that prevent blood
from moving in the wrong
direction.
Heart Evolution
Hearts have ___________ more chambers over time to more
efficiently carry oxygenated blood.
•________only have a two chambered heart and oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood are mixed.
•________have a three chambered heart, but oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood are also mixed.
•________and other mammals have a four chambered heart,
this allows for oxygenated and deoxygenated blood to be kept
completely separate.
The Human Heart
The human heart has ______ chambers: 2 atria and 2
ventricles.
The _______ are the chambers that receive blood. The
right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the
body. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from
the lungs.
The _________ are the chambers that pump blood out
of the heart. The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated
blood to the lungs. The left ventricle pumps oxygenated
blood to the body.
There are ____________ that prevent the backflow of
blood. Valves between the atria and ventricles are
called atrioventricular (AV) valves and valves that are in
arteries are, prevented backflow into ventricles are
called semilunar valves.
The Human Heart
Blood Flow
*Blood in the lungs has picked up oxygen. It is then
carried by the ___________vein back to the heart. The
blood enters the _______ atrium, then moves through
the ____________ valve into the _______ ventricle.
The left ventricle pumps the blood through a
____________ valve and out the _______(artery) to
the body. The tissues in the body utilize the oxygen in
the blood, so when it returns to the heart it is
____________ . The deoxygenated blood moves
through the ________and ________vena cava into
the atrium, then flows through the atrioventricular
valve into the _______ atrium. The left atrium pumps
the blood through a ____________ valve and through
the pulmonary artery leading to the _______.
Blood Flow
Blood Flow
The blood pathway that flows from the right side of the
heart, to the lungs and then back to the left side of the
heart is called the ____________ circuit.
The blood pathway that flows from the left side of the
heart to the body and then back to the right side of the
heart is the ____________ circuit.
Control of the Heart
The heart contains cells that can initiate contractionscalled ____________ cells.
They are located in an area of the heart called the
Sinoatrial (SA) node or ____________ . It’s located in
the upper wall of the right atrium and contracts both atriasending blood to the ventricles.
The message from the SA node is them relayed to the
____________ (AV) node in the lower wall of the right
atrium. It passes the message down to both ventricles
using ____________ fibers- which cause the contraction
of the ventricles- sending blood out of the heart.
Blood
Blood is a specialized connective tissue that contains
the following:
* ____________ red blood cells that contain the
protein hemoglobin and carry oxygen.
* ____________ white blood cells that fight against
infections
* ____________ cell fragments that help your blood to
clot when you get a cut. The proteins fibrin also helps
to form the clot.
* ____________ this is the liquid portion of the blood
that contains dissolved substances, such as glucose.
The Excretory System
____________ maintaining homeostasis of salt/water
balance
Examples:
Freshwater fish are ____________ relative to the
water around them. This causes water to constantly
diffuse into the fish. In response, the fish rarely drinks
and will constantly urinate.
Saltwater fish are ____________ relative to the salt
water around them. This means that the fish is
constantly losing water by osmosis. Because of this
saltwater fish constantly drink, and rarely urinate.
Excretory Systems
Various excretory systems have evolved to help
organisms to osmoregulate:
* ____________ vacuoles- are in single celled
organisms such as amoeba, pump water out.
* ____________ tubules- are found in insects. They
are tubes that collect body fluids from the hemolyph
that bathes cells. The fluids (which contain wastes) are
deposited in the gut. Wastes are then secreted out the
anus.
* ____________ are found in vertebrates. Contain
millions of individual filtering tubes called
____________ , which filter the blood constantly and
remove wastes to excrete in urine.
Nitrogenous Wastes
* _________is a major waste product
in animals. It comes from amino
acids being broken down in the body.
*Different organisms deal with this
waste differently:
*Fish secrete __________directly
into the environment.
*Mammals convert the ammonia
into ______in their livers. Urea is
less toxic than ammonia and
requires less water to excrete.
*Birds, Insects & many Reptiles convert urea into
another molecule called ________ ______ , which is
insoluble in water, so it forms a solid. This allows them
to conserve more water.
The Human Excretory System
* ____________ contain nephrons which filter blood.
* ____________ tubes that carry urine from the
kidneys to the bladder
* ______ stores urine
* ________tube that
carries urine from the
bladder to the outside
of the body. In males,
is also carries semen
for reproduction
The Nephron
*Blood enters the nephron in the ____________ a capillary. The
force of blood pressure causes the fluid portion of the blood to be
pushed out the capillary and into a structure called ____________
capsule.
•From Bowman’s capsule, the fluid moves through the
____________ tubule, where where additional substances are
secreted into the tube and substances the body wished to keep
are removed.
•As the fluid moves down the descending limb of the
____________, water is removed from the fluid by passive
transport. As the fluid moves up the ascending limb of the Loope of
Henle salt is actively removed. This salt is what causes water to
diffuse out in the ascending limb.
•In the ____________ tubule, additional substances can be
secreted and reabsorbed.
•Finally, the filtrate collects in the ____________ before moving to
the renal pelvis of the kidney and out the ureter.
The Nephron
Words
Words
Hormonal Control of the Kidney
____________ hormone (ADH)- acts on the collecting
duct, causing it to reabsorb more water when the body
is dehydrated.
____________ increases both the absorption of water
and salts. It does this by increasing the permeability of
the distal tubule and the collecting duct to salt. When
more salt diffuses out, more water follows passively.
The Digestive System
Digestion is the _________breakdown of food. During digestion
the following molecules must be broken down: proteins into
amino acids, starches into glucose molecules, Lipids into
glycerol and fatty acids and nucleic acids into nucleotides.
In humans, digestion follows the following sequence of events:
1. Mouth- the enzyme ____________ amylase, made by the salivary
glands, begins breaking down starches. Chewing starts to break
down the food, which is swallowed as a ball called a bolus.
2. ________the throat. A flap of tissue called the _________ blocks
the trachea to prevent you from inhaling your food into your lungs.
3. __________the tube that connects the pharynx with the stomach.
Food moves through wavelike contractions of the smooth muscle
surround the tube- these contractions are called ____________ .
The Digestive System
4. Stomach- muscular sac that stores food. Produces gastric juices
that contain the enzyme ________which breaks down proteins. Is
very acidic to aid in digestion and kill bacteria. Food leaving the
stomach is called ____________ .
5. Small intestine- the first part is called the ___________. All
biomolecules are broken down here- lipids by the enzyme lipase,
starches by pancreatic amylase,etc. The lining of the small intestine
is highly folded into structures called ________which increase the
surface area for absorption of nutrients. The pancreas dumps in
bicarbonate to buffer the pH of the chyme entering.
6.Large Intestine- also called the ________. Its main function is to
absorb ________. Many harmless bacteria live here _______and
produce vitamins which we absorb. The beginning of the large
intesting contains a finger-like projection called the __________ .
Digestive System- Accessory Organs
Digestion requires help from several organs that food doesn’t actually
move through:
•_______ produces _____, which emulsifies (breaks up) lipids so that
lipase can digest them
•_______________ store
bile until it’s needed- is
connected to the
small intestine
•___________ produces
enzymes to break up
all four biomolecules and
then dumps them into the
small intestine. Also makes
bicarbonate to buffer the acidity
of the chyme entering the small intestine.
Digestive System- Enzymes
Digestive System- Hormones
Several hormones help to regulate digestion:
•_________ produced by cells in the lining of the
stomach when food reaches the stomach. Enters the
blood stream and stimulates the stomach to make
gastric juices.
•__________ produced by cells lining the duodenum
when food enters. Stimulates the pancreas to secrete
bicarbonate, that neutralizes the acidity of the chyme
moving from the stomach to the small intestine.
•____________(CCK)- produced by the small intestine
to stimulate the gallbladder to release bile and the
pancreas to release its enzymes into the small
intestine.
Evolution of Digestive Systems
____________ have
longer
digestive systems- in
Particular, a long cecum
to allow for bacteria to
help them break down
plants
____________ have
shorter digestive
systems
The Nervous System
The basic unit of the nervous system is a neuron, which has the
following parts:
•____________ _____-contains the nucleus and organelles
•____________ - receives stimuli
•____________ - long and slender and sends messages out of
the cell
Types of Neurons
Neurons can be classified into three groups based on
their functions:
•____________ neurons- also called afferent neuronssend messages about the external environment to the
brain. Examples include the neurons that detect light in
your eye, or scents in your nose.
•____________ neurons- also called efferent neuronsstimulate target cells to produce some kind of
response. Connect to either muscle or gland cells to tell
them what to do.Carry messages away from the brain.
•__________also called associative neurons- located
in the brain and spinal cord and receive messages from
sensory neurons and send messages to motor neurons
Sodium Potassium Pump
In neurons, there are channel proteins called _________
__________ pumps. These pumps actively transport
sodium ions (which are positively charged) to the outside
of the cell and potassium to the inside of the cell.
At rest, there is more ____________ concentrated
outside of a neuron.
How A Neuron Sends A Message
An action potential is the process of a neuron sending a
message. Here’s how it works:
1. ____________ potential- this is when a cell is at rest. The
inside of the cell is negatively charged (-70mv) relative to
the outside of the cell.
2. ____________ potential- the cell is stimulated to send a
message. This causes sodium channels to open up and
sodium to rush into the cell, carrying with them a positive
charge. In order for this to occur, the threshold has to be
met- this is a particular amount of stimulation required for
the message to proceed. Each sodium channel stimulates
neighboring sodium channels to open along the length of
the axon. This makes the inside of the cell more positive
(less negative).
An Action Potential
How a Neuron Sends A Message
3. ____________ in response to the sodium rushing
into the cell, another type of channel opens and
potassium rushes out of the cell. The makes the inside
of the cell less positive (more negative).
4. ____________ by the time the potassium and
sodium gates have closed, the inside of the cell
becomes slightly more negative (-80mv) than it is at
resting
5. ____________ Period- The sodium potassium
pump returns the sodium back to the outside of the cell
and the potassium back to the inside of the cell.
How A Neuron Sends A Message
Words
Saltatory Conduction
Some neurons are covered by an insulating covering
called ____________ sheath- it helps the message
move along the axon faster.
Support cells called ____________ cells produce the
myelin sheath.
There are also areas of the axon that aren’t covered by
the sheath- called ____________ of ____________
and the message jumps from node to node.
What happens when the message
gets to the end of the axon?
_______-where two neurons meet. The neuron before the
synapse is called the __________neuron, the neuron after is
called the ____________ neuron. There are two types of
synapses:
1. __________ synapses- the two neurons touch each other and
are connected by a gap junction- so the message moves
through the channel.
2. __________ synapses- there is a physical gap between the
two cells. In these synapses, calcium gates open in the synaptic
terminal (end of the axon) of the presynaptic cell. The
_________ ions stimulate the cell to release _________
molecules by _________ . The neurotransmitters cross the
synapse and bind to the postsynaptic neuron- causing the cell to
become stimulated. Neurotransmitters are then recycled.
A Chemical Synapse
Words
Divisions of the Nervous System
____________ Nervous System- brain and spinal cord
____________ Nervous System- sensory and motor
neurons (everything but the brain & spinal cord) Can be
further divided into two groups:
_________ Nervous System- voluntary control
of skeletal muscles
________Nervous System- involuntary control
of organs. Is further subdivided into the
sympathetic nerves that stimulate the body and
the parasympathetic nerves that slow the bodie’s
functions down
Peripheral Nervous System
The Muscular System
Muscular tissue is specialized to contract and relax, allowing for
movement. Recall that there are three types of muscle:
skeletal, smooth and cardiac.
The ____________ filament model describes how muscles
contract and relax.
The ____________ is the term for the plasma membrane of a
muscle cell. It is highly invaginated in structures called Ttubules the penetrate into the cell.
The ____________ is the cytoplasm in a muscle cell.
The ____________ reticulum is a specialized organelle found
only in muscle cells- its job is to store calcium.
Muscle Cell Structure
Nearly the entire volume of a muscle
cell is filled with long structures called
myofibrils.
These myofibrils are composed of
two alternating filaments:
____________ the thin filament.
Along it’s length are two
other molecules- troponin
and tropomyosin.
____________ the thick filament.
Myosin has several globular
heads.
The Sliding Filament Model
When ATP is bound to myosin it is broken down to ADP. This
provides energy for myosin to form a ____________ with
actin and slide past it- shortening the length of the muscle.
How Muscle Contraction is Controlled
Neurons control muscle cell contraction. Motor neurons meet up with muscle
cells and send the neurotransmitter ________across the synapse between
the two cells.
When the neurotransmitter binds, it sends an impulse down the _______of
the sarcolemma(plasma membrane).
This stimulate the sarcosplamic
reticulum to release its ________.
The calcium binds to _____, which
causes troponin and ________to
shift. Normally these two molecules
bind myosin from forming a
crossbridge with actin. However,
when calcium is released, troponin
and tropomyosin move out of the way
to let the contraction proceed.
The Immune System
The inside of the human body is an attractive place for many
viruses, bacteria, and other organisms to live.
You have 3 lines of defense against such invasions:
1. ______and _________Membranes- these are a nonspecific
defense- they will attack anything. It includes:
-Skin- which has oily and acidic secretions that make it hostile.
-Antimicrobial proteins- such as lysozymes- which break down
the cell walls of bacteria- they are found in your saliva and
tears
-Cilia- line the lungs and sweep up microbes
-Gastric juices- kill bacteria in the stomach
-Sybiotic bacteria- found in the digestive tract and vagina and
outcompete harmful species
The Immune System
2. Your second line of defense is also nonspecific:
- __________- leukocytes that engulf pathogens. These
include cells called macrophages, natural killer cells, and
neutrophils.
- _________- these are proteins that help attract phagocytes
to foreign cells
-_________- these are chemical molecules secreted by
damaged cells to attract help
-__________ Response- occurs in response to pathogens.
Histamine is released and causes increased blood flow to the
area. Blood vessels dilate and become more
leaky/permeable. Phagocytes are attracted to the area by
chemical signals.
The Immune System
3. The third line of defense is the immune response- it is
____________ to specific antigens.
An antigen is anything that causes your
body to mount an immune defense against it.
There are two main types of cells that
carry our the immune response:
____________ these are made in and
mature in the bone marrow
____________ these are made in
the bone marrow, but mature in the
thymus
B Cells
B cells- each only recognize one specific antigen.
When they recognize an invader they produce
____________ /immunoglobulins- proteins that will
bind to and hold the invader hostage.
Are responsible for ____________ immunityresponding to free antigens floating around in the blood
or lymph.
There are two types of B cells:
-_________ B cells- release antibodies
-_________cells- do not immediately
release their antibodies, but stay in
the body for years to prepare for a
later infection by the same antigen.
T- cells
All cells in your body contain a structure called an
____________ complex.
This structure allows cells to recognize cells that belong in your
body and those that are foreign.
A cell that has been invaded by a pathogen will display a piece
of the invader on its MHC complex to signal to T cells that it’s
infected.
T cells do not make antibodies.
T cells are responsible for _______
________ immunity- attacking
any non-self cell- including
body cells that have been invaded.
T cells
There are two types of T cells:
-____________ or Killer T cells- recognize and destroy
non-self cells by punching holes in them
____________ T cells- stimulate B cells and cytotoxic T cells
Supplementing Natural Defenses
_______- chemicals that will kill bacteria- usually by attacking
their cell walls
_______- when a person is given an injection of a dead or
weakened antigen. This allows the body to have a primary immune
response against the pathogen and produce memory cells.
_______ immunity- transferring antibodies from one individual
who was previously infected to another. Antibodies are passed
across the placenta and through milk in mammals.
Immune system overview
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The Endocrine System
Your endocrine system produces ____________ -chemical
messenger molecules that give instructions to your cells.
The cell that makes a hormone is called the ____________
cell. The cell that is affected by the
hormone is called the
____________ cell.
Hormones are transported in the blood.
Hormones can be made of steroids,
peptides or modified amino acids.
Endocrine hormones
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Endocrine hormones
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Endocrine System
_________hormones are hydrophobic/non-polar, so they are
able to diffuse directly into the target cell and cause a change in
the nucleus.
__________and amine hormones or hydrophilic/polar, so they
have to bind to a receptor on the plasma membrane and utilize
a secondary messenger molecule on the inside of the cell.
Hormonal control of Calcium levels
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Hormonal Control of Glucose Levels
Reproductive Systems
Females:
____________ produce eggs through meiosis
_______________ tubes- connect ovaries to uterus. Where
fertilization occurs.
_______where the
_______-(fertilized egg)
implants and grows into
an embryo. The opening
is called the cervix.
_____at birth, the fetus
passes through the opening
to the outside of the body.
Reproductive Systems
In Males:
_________ - contain seminiferous tubules where sperm are
produced through meiosis. Hang outside the body to maintain
proper temperature for sperm formation
____________ - coiled tube attached to each testis, where sperm
mature and are stored
____________ tubes leaving each epididymis that carry sperm to
the urethra
____________ vesicles, ____________ gland and ____________
glands- produce fluids that sperm can swim in and that contain
fructose for energy and prostaglandins to stimulate uterine
contractions
_________- contain the urethra through which semen passes.
Male Reproductive System
Sperm structure:
Sperm head contains an
_________- has
enzymes that allow it to
penetrate the egg
Body- a nucleus and
____________
Tail- a ____________
Gametogenesis- producing gametes through meiosis
____________ - egg
formation
Rather than producing four
mature egg cells, only one
is made. The rest form
small ____________ that
are absorbed by the body.
This process occurs in the
ovaries.
Occurs only
____________ per month.
Gametogenesis- producing gametes through meiosis
Spermatogenesissperm production
Occurs on a ______ basis.
Produces 4 mature sperm
cells.
Occurs in ____________
tubules in the testes.
Immature sperm are
nourished by cells called
____________ cells.
Sperm finish maturing in the
epididymis
Hormonal Control of Reproduction
In females:
1.
They hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland monitor the levels of estrogen
and progesterone in the blood. In a negative feedback fashion, low levels of
these hormones cause the _____________ to make a hormone called
______(gonadotropic releasing hormone). This stimulates the ___________ to
secrete ____ (luteinizing hormone) and _____ (follicle stimulating hormone)
2.
The follicle develops. _____ stimulates the follicle and the egg to develop in the
ovary.
3.
The follicle secretes _____________.
4.
___________ occurs- the egg is released. This is stimulated by a surge of ____.
5.
The __________ _________ (the follicle after the egg is released) forms and
secretes estrogen and progesterone.
6.
The _______________ (lining) in the uterus thickens because of the estrogen
and progesterone.
7.
They hypothalamus and pituitary stop making LH and FSH because of the high
levels of estrogen and progesterone.
Female Reproduction
8. The endometrium
disintegrates if pregancy
hasn’t occurred.This
causes ______________.
9. If a fertilized egg
implants (pregnancy) the
embryo secretes a
hormone- ______- which
sustains the corpus
luteum, which produces
estrogen and
progesterone and
maintains the pregancy.
Hormonal Control of Reproduction
In Males:
The reproductive cycle is controlled by many of the same
hormones.
In response to GnRH from the
hypothalamus the pituitary gland
makes FSH and LH. LH stimulates
the testes to produce __________.
FSH stimulates _______ cells to
promote sperm development.
Hormone levels are __________
in males.
Embryonic Development
There are four stages in the growth and development of animals.
1. _________________- the formation of eggs and sperm
2. Embryonic development- begins with fertilization and end
with birth
3. The process leading up to reproductive maturity (_________)
4. Aging and death
We’re only going to focus on the first two stages.
Embryonic Development
1. Fertilization- when sperm penetrates the egg. The nuclei of
the egg and sperm fuse. The fertilized egg is called a zygote.
2. Cleavage- the zygote now begins a series of cleavage
divisions- rapid cell divisions without cell growth. As a result,
each of the resulting cells contain less cytoplasm than the
zygote. Some other events that happen at this time:
-
embryo polarity- the egg has an upper “animal pole” and a
lower “vegetal pole”. Cells formed at the vegetal pole
contain more yolk- or stored food- because the yolk
settles to the bottom.
3. Morula- successive cleavage divisions result in a solid ball of
cells called a morula.
Embryonic Development
4. _____________- As cell divisions continue. Liquid
fills the morula and pushes the cells out to form a
circular cavity surrounded by a single layer of cells. The
hollow sphere of cells in called the blastula, the cavity
is called the _____________.
Embryonic Development
5. ________- Formation of the gastrula, or gastrulation, occurs
when a group of cells invaginate (move inward) into the blastula,
forming a two-layered embryo with an opening from the outside
into a center cavity. The following features are associated with the
gastrula:
•Three _______ layers- ectoderm (outside), mesoderm( middle)
and endoderm (inside) These are the layers from which all
susequent tissues will develop
•______________- the center cavity is called the archenteron. It is
completely surrounded by endoderm cells.
•The __________- the opening into the archenteron.
It becomes a mouth (in ______________) or an
anus (in _________________)
Embryonic Development
6. Extraembryonic Membrane Development- in birds,
reptiles, and humans (collectively called amniotes)membranes outside of the embryo develop
•_________- in birds and reptiles it acts as a membrane for gas
exchange. In mammals it forms the placenta.
•__________- begins as a sac that buds fro the archenteron.
Eventually encircles the embryo and stores waste products. In
mammals it develops into the umbilical cord, transporting wastes,
gases, and nutrients between the embryo and placenta.
•___________- a fluid filled cavity that cushions the developing
embryo
•__________ sac- in birds and reptiles blood vessels transport the
nutrients from the sac to the developing embryo. In mammals the
yolk sac is empty.
Embryonic Development
7. ________________- As
cells continue to divide, they
become different from one
another (_____________)taking on specific
characteristics of
different tissues and organs.
The development of organs
is organogenesis.