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Animal Systems Ap Biology Organization • • • • • • • The human body is an orderly assembly of parts (anatomy). Macromolecules (proteins, lipids, nucleic acids and carbohydrates) join to form cells. Cells join to form ________. There are ________ types of tissue: epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous. These tissues join together to form ________, such as the heart or the stomach. Organs may interact to form organ ________ such as the digestive system. ____________(balance) allows for the stable functioning (physiology) of all our combined parts. Epithelium • Epithelial tissue ________ the surface of the body and lines its cavities and tubes. – One surface is free and faces either the environment or a body fluid; the other adheres to a basement membrane, a densely packed layer of proteins and polysaccharides. – Cells are linked tightly together; there may be one or more layers. Epithelium • There are two basic types of epithelia. – ________ ___________is a single layer of cells functioning as a lining for body cavities, ducts, and tubes. • Simple epithelium functions in diffusion, secretion, absorption, or filtering of substances across the cell layer. • _______________epithelium is a single layer of cells that looks like a double layer; most of the cells are ciliated; examples are found in the respiratory passages and reproductive tracts. – ________ ___________has many layers—as in human skin. Epithelium – Both simple and stratified epithelium can be subdivided into groups based on shape at the tissue surface: • __________epithelium consists of flattened cells; examples are found in the lining of the blood vessels. • __________epithelium has cube-shaped cells; examples are found in glands. • __________epithelium has elongated cells; examples are found in the intestine. Epithelium cilia columnar cells basement membrane TYPE: Simple squamous TYPE: Simple cuboidal DESCRIPTION: FrictionDESCRIPTION: Single layer reducing slick, single layer of of squarish cells flattened cells COMMON LOCATIONS: COMMON LOCATIONS: Ducts, secretory part of Lining of blood and lymph small glands; retina; kidney vessels, heart; air sacs of tubules; ovaries, testes; lungs; peritoneum bronchioles FUNCTION: Diffusion; filtration; secretion of lubricants FUNCTION: Secretion; absorption TYPE: Simple columnar DESCRIPTION: Single layer of tall cells; free surface may have cilia, mucus-secreting glandular cells, microvilli COMMON LOCATIONS: Glands, ducts; gut; parts of uterus; small bronchi FUNCTION: Secretion; absorption; ciliated types move substances Connective Tissue • ____________________binds together, supports, and anchors body parts; it is the most abundant tissue in the body. – – Fibrous connective tissues and specialized connective tissues are both found in the body. Fiber-like structural proteins and polysaccharides secreted by the cells make up a __________ (ground substance) around the cells that can range from hard to liquid. Connective Tissues – ____________________is composed of collagen, ground substance, and calcium salts; minerals harden bone so it is capable of supporting and protecting body tissues and organs. – ____________________cells are specialized for the storage of fat; most adipose tissue lies just beneath the skin. – __________contains a dense array of fibers in a rubbery ground substance; cartilage can withstand great stress but heals slowly when damaged. Muscle Tissue: Movement • ____________________contracts in response to stimulation, then passively lengthens; movement is a highly coordinated action. • There are three types of muscle: – __________muscle tissue attaches to bones for voluntary movement; long muscle cells are bundled together in parallel arrays, which are enclosed in a sheath of dense connective tissue. - __________muscle tissue contains tapered, bundled cells that function in involuntary movement; it lines the gut, blood vessels, and glands. – __________muscle is composed of short cells that can function in units due to the signals that pass through special junctions that fuse the cells together; cardiac muscle is only found in the wall of the heart. Nervous Tissue: Communication • • __________ __________ consists mainly of cells, including neurons (nerve cells) and support cells; nervous tissue forms the body’s communication network. Neurons carry messages. – __________ have two types of cell processes (extensions): branched dendrites pick up chemical messages and pass them to an outgoing axon. Nervous Tissue: Communication – A cluster of processes from different neurons is called a __________ . – Nerves move messages throughout the body. • Neuroglia are support cells. cells (neuroglia) make up 90 percent of the nervous system. Neuroglia provide physical support for neurons. – Other glial cells provide nutrition (astrocytes), clean-up, and insulation services (Schwann cells). – __________ Figure 4.5b Organs and Organ Systems • Eleven organ systems (integumentary, nervous, muscular, skeletal, circulatory, endocrine, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive) contribute to the survival of the living cells of the body. The Integument • • Humans have an outer covering called the ______________, which includes the skin and the structures derived from epidermal cells including oil and sweat glands, hair, and nails. The skin performs several functions: – – – – • The skin covers and protects the body from abrasion, bacterial attack, ultraviolet radiation, and dehydration. It helps control internal temperature. Its receptors are essential in detecting environmental stimuli. The skin produces vitamin D. Epidermis and dermis—the two layers of skin. The Integument refers to the thin, outermost layers of cells consisting of stratified, squamous epithelium. – __________ • _______________produce keratin; when the cells are finally • – The __________ is the thicker portion of the skin that underlies the epidermis. • • – pushed to the skin surface, they have died, but the keratin fibers remain to make the outermost layer of skin (the stratum corneum) tough and waterproof. Deep in the epidermis are melanin-producing cells (________________________); melanin, which contribute to the natural coloration of skin. The dermis is mostly dense connective tissue, consisting of elastin and collagen fibers. Blood vessels, hair follicles, nerve endings, and glands are located here. The ___________________is a subcutaneous layer that anchors the skin; fat is also stored here. smooth muscle melanocyte sweat pore sebaceous gland Langerhans cell keratinized layer living layer hair shaft EPIDERMIS keratinocyte Granstein cell DERMIS HYPODERMIS adipose cells nerve fiber hair follicle pressure receptor sweat gland • The Integument Sweat glands and other structures are derived from epidermis. – – – Sweat glands secrete a fluid (mostly water with a little dissolved salt) that is useful in regulating the temperature of the body. Oil (_____________) glands function to soften and lubricate the hair and skin; acne is a condition in which the ducts become infected by bacteria. Hairs are flexible, ________________structures rooted in the skin and projecting above the surface; growth is influenced by genes, nutrition, and hormones. Homeostasis: The Body in Balance • Feedback mechanisms are important homeostatic controls. – A common homeostatic mechanism is __________ _________________ . • – It is similar to the functioning of a thermostat in a heating/cooling system; an example is how your body regulates its temperature. mechanisms may intensify the original signal; childbirth is an example. __________ _____________ STIMULUS After overexertion on a hot, dry day, surface temperature of body rises. RESPONSE Body temperature falls,receptors initiate shifts in effector output. receptors In skin and elsewhere; detect the temperature change. effectors integrator Pituitary gland & thyroid gland trigger widespread adjustments in many body organs. The hypothalamus, a brain region, compares input from the receptors against the set point for the body. Effectors These carry out specific responses, including: Skeletal muscles in chest wall work to get additional oxygen into lungs. Smooth muscle in blood vessels dilates; blood transporting metabolic heat shunted to skin; some heat lost to surroundings. Sweat glands secrete more, with cooling effect on the brain especially. Overall slowing of activity results in less metabolically generated heat. Thermoregulation ____________ organisms that can control their internal body temperature ____________ organisms that are the same temperature as their environment Ways organisms thermoregulate: 1. Cooling by evaporation- ____________ 2. Warming by metabolism- ____________ contraction generates heat 3. Adjusting surface area- ____________ (blood vessels get bigger to release excess heat) and ____________ (blood vessels get smaller to conserve heat) The Respiratory System All animals require oxygen to perform _________________ , to produce _______ . Different mechanisms for acquiring oxygen have evolved: 1. ____________ contact with environment- flatworms are thin enough that oxygen just diffuses into their cells 2. ____________ these are structures that are allow for countercurrent exchange- where water and the underlying blood flow in opposite directions to allow for oxygen to diffuse 3. ____________ insects have chitin-lined tubes called trachae (the holes to these tubes are called spiracles) that permeate their bodies and allow oxygen to come in 4. ____________ are cavities in animals that allow for oxygen to diffuse Tracheal systems in insects Countercurrent exchange in fish gills Nasal Cavity Oral Cavity (mouth) Pharynx (throat) Epiglottis Larynx (voice box) Pleural Membrane Trachea (windpipe) Intercostal Muscles Lung (one of a pair) Bronchial Tree Diaphragm bronchiole alveolar duct alveolar sac (sectioned) alveolar sac alveoli pulmonary capillary Gas Exchange in Humans Air flows through the following: 1. Nose or Mouth 2. ____________(throat)- also shared with digestive system 3. ____________ the voicebox that contains the vocal chords 4. ____________ tube that branches into two bronchi which enter the lungs and then branch repeatedly into smaller tubes called bronchioles 5. ____________ each bronchiole tube ends in a small sac (alveoli) that is surrounded by capillaries that pick up oxygen Respiration in Humans Oxygen ____________ diffuses into blood and is is carried by ____________ found in red blood cells. The oxygen will later be released to cells in the body to use. Carbon dioxide produced by the bodies tissues is release into the bloodstream. The carbon dioxide passively diffuses out of capillaries and into the lungs to be exhaled. Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood as dissolved bicarbonate. When carbon dioxide dissolves in the blood it causes the blood to become more ____________ . Homeostasis of Oxygen & CO2 levels ____________ are receptors that can detect chemicals. Chemoreceptors located in your carotid arteries (which supply blood to the brain) monitor blood ____ When carbon dioxide levels increase, the pH of the blood drops and the Chemoreceptors send nerve impulses to signal to _________ oblongata in the brain which signals to the ____________ (muscles below your lungs) and ____________ muscles (in between your ribs) to increase your breathing rate. Breathing is controlled using ____________ feedback. The Circulatory System Large organisms need a way to carry oxygen and nutrients around the body and to remove wastes. There are two basic types of circulatory systems: •____________ circulatory systems- have no blood vessels and no blood. Instead, use a substance called hemolymph to carry oxygen and the hemolymph directly bathes cells. Occurs in insects. •____________ circulatory systems- blood is confined to vessels such as arteries, veins, and capillaries. Blood Vessels ____________ carry blood away from the heart. ____________ branch from arteries. ____________ branch from arterioles. Are the smallest type of blood vesseles. Are only one cell thick and are so small that blood cells move through them in a single file line. This allows for efficient diffusion. _________ where blood moves from capillaries, starts to take blood back to heart ______ return blood to the heart. Are larger than capillaries, and have valves in them that prevent blood from moving in the wrong direction. Heart Evolution Hearts have ___________ more chambers over time to more efficiently carry oxygenated blood. •________only have a two chambered heart and oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are mixed. •________have a three chambered heart, but oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are also mixed. •________and other mammals have a four chambered heart, this allows for oxygenated and deoxygenated blood to be kept completely separate. The Human Heart The human heart has ______ chambers: 2 atria and 2 ventricles. The _______ are the chambers that receive blood. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs. The _________ are the chambers that pump blood out of the heart. The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs. The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to the body. There are ____________ that prevent the backflow of blood. Valves between the atria and ventricles are called atrioventricular (AV) valves and valves that are in arteries are, prevented backflow into ventricles are called semilunar valves. The Human Heart Blood Flow *Blood in the lungs has picked up oxygen. It is then carried by the ___________vein back to the heart. The blood enters the _______ atrium, then moves through the ____________ valve into the _______ ventricle. The left ventricle pumps the blood through a ____________ valve and out the _______(artery) to the body. The tissues in the body utilize the oxygen in the blood, so when it returns to the heart it is ____________ . The deoxygenated blood moves through the ________and ________vena cava into the atrium, then flows through the atrioventricular valve into the _______ atrium. The left atrium pumps the blood through a ____________ valve and through the pulmonary artery leading to the _______. Blood Flow Blood Flow The blood pathway that flows from the right side of the heart, to the lungs and then back to the left side of the heart is called the ____________ circuit. The blood pathway that flows from the left side of the heart to the body and then back to the right side of the heart is the ____________ circuit. Control of the Heart The heart contains cells that can initiate contractionscalled ____________ cells. They are located in an area of the heart called the Sinoatrial (SA) node or ____________ . It’s located in the upper wall of the right atrium and contracts both atriasending blood to the ventricles. The message from the SA node is them relayed to the ____________ (AV) node in the lower wall of the right atrium. It passes the message down to both ventricles using ____________ fibers- which cause the contraction of the ventricles- sending blood out of the heart. Blood Blood is a specialized connective tissue that contains the following: * ____________ red blood cells that contain the protein hemoglobin and carry oxygen. * ____________ white blood cells that fight against infections * ____________ cell fragments that help your blood to clot when you get a cut. The proteins fibrin also helps to form the clot. * ____________ this is the liquid portion of the blood that contains dissolved substances, such as glucose. The Excretory System ____________ maintaining homeostasis of salt/water balance Examples: Freshwater fish are ____________ relative to the water around them. This causes water to constantly diffuse into the fish. In response, the fish rarely drinks and will constantly urinate. Saltwater fish are ____________ relative to the salt water around them. This means that the fish is constantly losing water by osmosis. Because of this saltwater fish constantly drink, and rarely urinate. Excretory Systems Various excretory systems have evolved to help organisms to osmoregulate: * ____________ vacuoles- are in single celled organisms such as amoeba, pump water out. * ____________ tubules- are found in insects. They are tubes that collect body fluids from the hemolyph that bathes cells. The fluids (which contain wastes) are deposited in the gut. Wastes are then secreted out the anus. * ____________ are found in vertebrates. Contain millions of individual filtering tubes called ____________ , which filter the blood constantly and remove wastes to excrete in urine. Nitrogenous Wastes * _________is a major waste product in animals. It comes from amino acids being broken down in the body. *Different organisms deal with this waste differently: *Fish secrete __________directly into the environment. *Mammals convert the ammonia into ______in their livers. Urea is less toxic than ammonia and requires less water to excrete. *Birds, Insects & many Reptiles convert urea into another molecule called ________ ______ , which is insoluble in water, so it forms a solid. This allows them to conserve more water. The Human Excretory System * ____________ contain nephrons which filter blood. * ____________ tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder * ______ stores urine * ________tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. In males, is also carries semen for reproduction The Nephron *Blood enters the nephron in the ____________ a capillary. The force of blood pressure causes the fluid portion of the blood to be pushed out the capillary and into a structure called ____________ capsule. •From Bowman’s capsule, the fluid moves through the ____________ tubule, where where additional substances are secreted into the tube and substances the body wished to keep are removed. •As the fluid moves down the descending limb of the ____________, water is removed from the fluid by passive transport. As the fluid moves up the ascending limb of the Loope of Henle salt is actively removed. This salt is what causes water to diffuse out in the ascending limb. •In the ____________ tubule, additional substances can be secreted and reabsorbed. •Finally, the filtrate collects in the ____________ before moving to the renal pelvis of the kidney and out the ureter. The Nephron Words Words Hormonal Control of the Kidney ____________ hormone (ADH)- acts on the collecting duct, causing it to reabsorb more water when the body is dehydrated. ____________ increases both the absorption of water and salts. It does this by increasing the permeability of the distal tubule and the collecting duct to salt. When more salt diffuses out, more water follows passively. The Digestive System Digestion is the _________breakdown of food. During digestion the following molecules must be broken down: proteins into amino acids, starches into glucose molecules, Lipids into glycerol and fatty acids and nucleic acids into nucleotides. In humans, digestion follows the following sequence of events: 1. Mouth- the enzyme ____________ amylase, made by the salivary glands, begins breaking down starches. Chewing starts to break down the food, which is swallowed as a ball called a bolus. 2. ________the throat. A flap of tissue called the _________ blocks the trachea to prevent you from inhaling your food into your lungs. 3. __________the tube that connects the pharynx with the stomach. Food moves through wavelike contractions of the smooth muscle surround the tube- these contractions are called ____________ . The Digestive System 4. Stomach- muscular sac that stores food. Produces gastric juices that contain the enzyme ________which breaks down proteins. Is very acidic to aid in digestion and kill bacteria. Food leaving the stomach is called ____________ . 5. Small intestine- the first part is called the ___________. All biomolecules are broken down here- lipids by the enzyme lipase, starches by pancreatic amylase,etc. The lining of the small intestine is highly folded into structures called ________which increase the surface area for absorption of nutrients. The pancreas dumps in bicarbonate to buffer the pH of the chyme entering. 6.Large Intestine- also called the ________. Its main function is to absorb ________. Many harmless bacteria live here _______and produce vitamins which we absorb. The beginning of the large intesting contains a finger-like projection called the __________ . Digestive System- Accessory Organs Digestion requires help from several organs that food doesn’t actually move through: •_______ produces _____, which emulsifies (breaks up) lipids so that lipase can digest them •_______________ store bile until it’s needed- is connected to the small intestine •___________ produces enzymes to break up all four biomolecules and then dumps them into the small intestine. Also makes bicarbonate to buffer the acidity of the chyme entering the small intestine. Digestive System- Enzymes Digestive System- Hormones Several hormones help to regulate digestion: •_________ produced by cells in the lining of the stomach when food reaches the stomach. Enters the blood stream and stimulates the stomach to make gastric juices. •__________ produced by cells lining the duodenum when food enters. Stimulates the pancreas to secrete bicarbonate, that neutralizes the acidity of the chyme moving from the stomach to the small intestine. •____________(CCK)- produced by the small intestine to stimulate the gallbladder to release bile and the pancreas to release its enzymes into the small intestine. Evolution of Digestive Systems ____________ have longer digestive systems- in Particular, a long cecum to allow for bacteria to help them break down plants ____________ have shorter digestive systems The Nervous System The basic unit of the nervous system is a neuron, which has the following parts: •____________ _____-contains the nucleus and organelles •____________ - receives stimuli •____________ - long and slender and sends messages out of the cell Types of Neurons Neurons can be classified into three groups based on their functions: •____________ neurons- also called afferent neuronssend messages about the external environment to the brain. Examples include the neurons that detect light in your eye, or scents in your nose. •____________ neurons- also called efferent neuronsstimulate target cells to produce some kind of response. Connect to either muscle or gland cells to tell them what to do.Carry messages away from the brain. •__________also called associative neurons- located in the brain and spinal cord and receive messages from sensory neurons and send messages to motor neurons Sodium Potassium Pump In neurons, there are channel proteins called _________ __________ pumps. These pumps actively transport sodium ions (which are positively charged) to the outside of the cell and potassium to the inside of the cell. At rest, there is more ____________ concentrated outside of a neuron. How A Neuron Sends A Message An action potential is the process of a neuron sending a message. Here’s how it works: 1. ____________ potential- this is when a cell is at rest. The inside of the cell is negatively charged (-70mv) relative to the outside of the cell. 2. ____________ potential- the cell is stimulated to send a message. This causes sodium channels to open up and sodium to rush into the cell, carrying with them a positive charge. In order for this to occur, the threshold has to be met- this is a particular amount of stimulation required for the message to proceed. Each sodium channel stimulates neighboring sodium channels to open along the length of the axon. This makes the inside of the cell more positive (less negative). An Action Potential How a Neuron Sends A Message 3. ____________ in response to the sodium rushing into the cell, another type of channel opens and potassium rushes out of the cell. The makes the inside of the cell less positive (more negative). 4. ____________ by the time the potassium and sodium gates have closed, the inside of the cell becomes slightly more negative (-80mv) than it is at resting 5. ____________ Period- The sodium potassium pump returns the sodium back to the outside of the cell and the potassium back to the inside of the cell. How A Neuron Sends A Message Words Saltatory Conduction Some neurons are covered by an insulating covering called ____________ sheath- it helps the message move along the axon faster. Support cells called ____________ cells produce the myelin sheath. There are also areas of the axon that aren’t covered by the sheath- called ____________ of ____________ and the message jumps from node to node. What happens when the message gets to the end of the axon? _______-where two neurons meet. The neuron before the synapse is called the __________neuron, the neuron after is called the ____________ neuron. There are two types of synapses: 1. __________ synapses- the two neurons touch each other and are connected by a gap junction- so the message moves through the channel. 2. __________ synapses- there is a physical gap between the two cells. In these synapses, calcium gates open in the synaptic terminal (end of the axon) of the presynaptic cell. The _________ ions stimulate the cell to release _________ molecules by _________ . The neurotransmitters cross the synapse and bind to the postsynaptic neuron- causing the cell to become stimulated. Neurotransmitters are then recycled. A Chemical Synapse Words Divisions of the Nervous System ____________ Nervous System- brain and spinal cord ____________ Nervous System- sensory and motor neurons (everything but the brain & spinal cord) Can be further divided into two groups: _________ Nervous System- voluntary control of skeletal muscles ________Nervous System- involuntary control of organs. Is further subdivided into the sympathetic nerves that stimulate the body and the parasympathetic nerves that slow the bodie’s functions down Peripheral Nervous System The Muscular System Muscular tissue is specialized to contract and relax, allowing for movement. Recall that there are three types of muscle: skeletal, smooth and cardiac. The ____________ filament model describes how muscles contract and relax. The ____________ is the term for the plasma membrane of a muscle cell. It is highly invaginated in structures called Ttubules the penetrate into the cell. The ____________ is the cytoplasm in a muscle cell. The ____________ reticulum is a specialized organelle found only in muscle cells- its job is to store calcium. Muscle Cell Structure Nearly the entire volume of a muscle cell is filled with long structures called myofibrils. These myofibrils are composed of two alternating filaments: ____________ the thin filament. Along it’s length are two other molecules- troponin and tropomyosin. ____________ the thick filament. Myosin has several globular heads. The Sliding Filament Model When ATP is bound to myosin it is broken down to ADP. This provides energy for myosin to form a ____________ with actin and slide past it- shortening the length of the muscle. How Muscle Contraction is Controlled Neurons control muscle cell contraction. Motor neurons meet up with muscle cells and send the neurotransmitter ________across the synapse between the two cells. When the neurotransmitter binds, it sends an impulse down the _______of the sarcolemma(plasma membrane). This stimulate the sarcosplamic reticulum to release its ________. The calcium binds to _____, which causes troponin and ________to shift. Normally these two molecules bind myosin from forming a crossbridge with actin. However, when calcium is released, troponin and tropomyosin move out of the way to let the contraction proceed. The Immune System The inside of the human body is an attractive place for many viruses, bacteria, and other organisms to live. You have 3 lines of defense against such invasions: 1. ______and _________Membranes- these are a nonspecific defense- they will attack anything. It includes: -Skin- which has oily and acidic secretions that make it hostile. -Antimicrobial proteins- such as lysozymes- which break down the cell walls of bacteria- they are found in your saliva and tears -Cilia- line the lungs and sweep up microbes -Gastric juices- kill bacteria in the stomach -Sybiotic bacteria- found in the digestive tract and vagina and outcompete harmful species The Immune System 2. Your second line of defense is also nonspecific: - __________- leukocytes that engulf pathogens. These include cells called macrophages, natural killer cells, and neutrophils. - _________- these are proteins that help attract phagocytes to foreign cells -_________- these are chemical molecules secreted by damaged cells to attract help -__________ Response- occurs in response to pathogens. Histamine is released and causes increased blood flow to the area. Blood vessels dilate and become more leaky/permeable. Phagocytes are attracted to the area by chemical signals. The Immune System 3. The third line of defense is the immune response- it is ____________ to specific antigens. An antigen is anything that causes your body to mount an immune defense against it. There are two main types of cells that carry our the immune response: ____________ these are made in and mature in the bone marrow ____________ these are made in the bone marrow, but mature in the thymus B Cells B cells- each only recognize one specific antigen. When they recognize an invader they produce ____________ /immunoglobulins- proteins that will bind to and hold the invader hostage. Are responsible for ____________ immunityresponding to free antigens floating around in the blood or lymph. There are two types of B cells: -_________ B cells- release antibodies -_________cells- do not immediately release their antibodies, but stay in the body for years to prepare for a later infection by the same antigen. T- cells All cells in your body contain a structure called an ____________ complex. This structure allows cells to recognize cells that belong in your body and those that are foreign. A cell that has been invaded by a pathogen will display a piece of the invader on its MHC complex to signal to T cells that it’s infected. T cells do not make antibodies. T cells are responsible for _______ ________ immunity- attacking any non-self cell- including body cells that have been invaded. T cells There are two types of T cells: -____________ or Killer T cells- recognize and destroy non-self cells by punching holes in them ____________ T cells- stimulate B cells and cytotoxic T cells Supplementing Natural Defenses _______- chemicals that will kill bacteria- usually by attacking their cell walls _______- when a person is given an injection of a dead or weakened antigen. This allows the body to have a primary immune response against the pathogen and produce memory cells. _______ immunity- transferring antibodies from one individual who was previously infected to another. Antibodies are passed across the placenta and through milk in mammals. Immune system overview Words Words The Endocrine System Your endocrine system produces ____________ -chemical messenger molecules that give instructions to your cells. The cell that makes a hormone is called the ____________ cell. The cell that is affected by the hormone is called the ____________ cell. Hormones are transported in the blood. Hormones can be made of steroids, peptides or modified amino acids. Endocrine hormones Words Words Endocrine hormones Words Words Endocrine System _________hormones are hydrophobic/non-polar, so they are able to diffuse directly into the target cell and cause a change in the nucleus. __________and amine hormones or hydrophilic/polar, so they have to bind to a receptor on the plasma membrane and utilize a secondary messenger molecule on the inside of the cell. Hormonal control of Calcium levels Words Hormonal Control of Glucose Levels Reproductive Systems Females: ____________ produce eggs through meiosis _______________ tubes- connect ovaries to uterus. Where fertilization occurs. _______where the _______-(fertilized egg) implants and grows into an embryo. The opening is called the cervix. _____at birth, the fetus passes through the opening to the outside of the body. Reproductive Systems In Males: _________ - contain seminiferous tubules where sperm are produced through meiosis. Hang outside the body to maintain proper temperature for sperm formation ____________ - coiled tube attached to each testis, where sperm mature and are stored ____________ tubes leaving each epididymis that carry sperm to the urethra ____________ vesicles, ____________ gland and ____________ glands- produce fluids that sperm can swim in and that contain fructose for energy and prostaglandins to stimulate uterine contractions _________- contain the urethra through which semen passes. Male Reproductive System Sperm structure: Sperm head contains an _________- has enzymes that allow it to penetrate the egg Body- a nucleus and ____________ Tail- a ____________ Gametogenesis- producing gametes through meiosis ____________ - egg formation Rather than producing four mature egg cells, only one is made. The rest form small ____________ that are absorbed by the body. This process occurs in the ovaries. Occurs only ____________ per month. Gametogenesis- producing gametes through meiosis Spermatogenesissperm production Occurs on a ______ basis. Produces 4 mature sperm cells. Occurs in ____________ tubules in the testes. Immature sperm are nourished by cells called ____________ cells. Sperm finish maturing in the epididymis Hormonal Control of Reproduction In females: 1. They hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland monitor the levels of estrogen and progesterone in the blood. In a negative feedback fashion, low levels of these hormones cause the _____________ to make a hormone called ______(gonadotropic releasing hormone). This stimulates the ___________ to secrete ____ (luteinizing hormone) and _____ (follicle stimulating hormone) 2. The follicle develops. _____ stimulates the follicle and the egg to develop in the ovary. 3. The follicle secretes _____________. 4. ___________ occurs- the egg is released. This is stimulated by a surge of ____. 5. The __________ _________ (the follicle after the egg is released) forms and secretes estrogen and progesterone. 6. The _______________ (lining) in the uterus thickens because of the estrogen and progesterone. 7. They hypothalamus and pituitary stop making LH and FSH because of the high levels of estrogen and progesterone. Female Reproduction 8. The endometrium disintegrates if pregancy hasn’t occurred.This causes ______________. 9. If a fertilized egg implants (pregnancy) the embryo secretes a hormone- ______- which sustains the corpus luteum, which produces estrogen and progesterone and maintains the pregancy. Hormonal Control of Reproduction In Males: The reproductive cycle is controlled by many of the same hormones. In response to GnRH from the hypothalamus the pituitary gland makes FSH and LH. LH stimulates the testes to produce __________. FSH stimulates _______ cells to promote sperm development. Hormone levels are __________ in males. Embryonic Development There are four stages in the growth and development of animals. 1. _________________- the formation of eggs and sperm 2. Embryonic development- begins with fertilization and end with birth 3. The process leading up to reproductive maturity (_________) 4. Aging and death We’re only going to focus on the first two stages. Embryonic Development 1. Fertilization- when sperm penetrates the egg. The nuclei of the egg and sperm fuse. The fertilized egg is called a zygote. 2. Cleavage- the zygote now begins a series of cleavage divisions- rapid cell divisions without cell growth. As a result, each of the resulting cells contain less cytoplasm than the zygote. Some other events that happen at this time: - embryo polarity- the egg has an upper “animal pole” and a lower “vegetal pole”. Cells formed at the vegetal pole contain more yolk- or stored food- because the yolk settles to the bottom. 3. Morula- successive cleavage divisions result in a solid ball of cells called a morula. Embryonic Development 4. _____________- As cell divisions continue. Liquid fills the morula and pushes the cells out to form a circular cavity surrounded by a single layer of cells. The hollow sphere of cells in called the blastula, the cavity is called the _____________. Embryonic Development 5. ________- Formation of the gastrula, or gastrulation, occurs when a group of cells invaginate (move inward) into the blastula, forming a two-layered embryo with an opening from the outside into a center cavity. The following features are associated with the gastrula: •Three _______ layers- ectoderm (outside), mesoderm( middle) and endoderm (inside) These are the layers from which all susequent tissues will develop •______________- the center cavity is called the archenteron. It is completely surrounded by endoderm cells. •The __________- the opening into the archenteron. It becomes a mouth (in ______________) or an anus (in _________________) Embryonic Development 6. Extraembryonic Membrane Development- in birds, reptiles, and humans (collectively called amniotes)membranes outside of the embryo develop •_________- in birds and reptiles it acts as a membrane for gas exchange. In mammals it forms the placenta. •__________- begins as a sac that buds fro the archenteron. Eventually encircles the embryo and stores waste products. In mammals it develops into the umbilical cord, transporting wastes, gases, and nutrients between the embryo and placenta. •___________- a fluid filled cavity that cushions the developing embryo •__________ sac- in birds and reptiles blood vessels transport the nutrients from the sac to the developing embryo. In mammals the yolk sac is empty. Embryonic Development 7. ________________- As cells continue to divide, they become different from one another (_____________)taking on specific characteristics of different tissues and organs. The development of organs is organogenesis.