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Endocrine Physiology
1. What is the Endocrine system?
2. What must a cell have to be able to
respond to a hormone?
3. What is one thing that a cell will always
do in response to a hormone?
4. Name 2 hormones that are synergistic
a series of glands that release a hormone into
the plasma, where it is dissolved and
transported throughout entire body within 60
seconds
the cell must have a functional hormone
receptor
Change its physiology
ADH and aldosterone
5. Name two hormones that are antagonists Atrial natriuretic peptide and ADH
6. Name two hormones that are permissive Thyroid hormone is permissive for growth
hormone
7. What is a target cell?
A cell that has a functional receptor (a protein)
for a particular hormone
8. What would happen if there were a gene The receptor becomes faulty, and will not
defect in the DNA code for a receptor?
respond to the hormone.
9. What would happen if the cell was
The hormone receptor will not function
exposed to excess salt, heat, or pH?
properly
10.What is a receptor?
A protein made by a target cell during protein
synthesis; it is inserted into the cell membrane.
What does the active site on the receptor
do?
It’s where the hormone is ‘fit’ into the receptor
and turns the signal into a response
11.What would happen if there were a gene The receptor would not be made, so the cell
defect in the DNA code for a receptor?
could not respond to the hormone.
12.What would happen if the receptor
The receptor would not work, so it would not
(which is a protein) became denatured
respond to the hormone.
(by heat, abnormal pH, an enzyme, or an
attack by a white blood cell)?
13.Where do endocrine glands secrete
Blood plasma
hormones into?
What are the three things that may happen
when the hormones are secreted?
Hormones can bind to receptor of their target
and cause a change
Can be destroyed by enzymes in the plasma
Go to the kidneys and be filtered out
14.By what mechanism are insulin and
glucagon released?
15.By what mechanism are the
hypothalamus and pituitary hormones
released?
16.What are three neuronal hormones?
Humoral mechanism
Where are these hormones made?
In the neurons
How is it transported and where is it
stored?
Transported by the axon and stored in the
synaptic knobs of the neurons
What does it get released into?
17.What is a Humoral Trigger?
What are some examples
The bloodstream
Something in the blood is being monitored.
When the level of that substance is too low, it
stimulates the release of the hormone.
Examples; insulin, glucagon, parathyroid
hormone
The storage form of glucose. When glucose is
in excess, it is taken to the liver and converted
into glucagon, and stored there.
When blood glucose is low
18. What is glucagon?
19.When will glucagon be broken down?
20. What does parathyroid hormone do?
21. Does parathyroid hormone metabolize
calcium?
22. What is a Hormonal Trigger?
23.When the hypothalamus (the boss)
releases TSH-RH, what happens to the
pituitary gland (the manager)?
24.What effect does that have?
Hormonal mechanism
oxytocin, ADH, and Epinephrine
Causes the intestines and kidneys to absorb
more calcium, and tells the osteoclasts to
degrade bone to increase blood calcium levels.
No.
This is when one endocrine gland releases a
hormone that stimulates another endocrine
gland to releases its hormone.
Pituitary gland releases TSH (thyroid
stimulating hormone)
TSH causes the thyroid gland (the worker) to
secrete TH (thyroid hormone)
25.What organ is directly affected by
hormones secreted by the
hypothalamus?
The pituitary gland
26.What glands are affected by hormones
secreted by the pituitary gland?
All endocrine glands in the body
27.What cells are affected by thyroid
hormone, and what is the effect?
28.What structure does the hypothalamus
directly regulate?
Almost all cells in the body have receptors for
TH. It causes an increase in metabolism. In the
hypothalamus, TH bound onto cell receptors
will signal the hypothalamus to stop secreting
TSH-RH
It regulates the secretion of pituitary
hormones.
29.By which two mechanisms is the
hypothalamus controlled?
30.Is the hypothalamus controlled by
positive or negative feedback loops?
31.How does the negative feedback loop
work in relation to the hypothalamus?
Neuronal and hormonal mechanisms
32.When the hypothalamus receives a
negative feedback signal, what does the
hypothalamus do?
33.What do hypothalamus
neurotransmitters do that are secreted
from axon terminals?
34.In an under-secreting thyroid tumor will
TH be high or low?
Stop secreting its “releasing” hormones. It
may then start secreting its “inhibiting”
hormones.
They secrete releasing factors to release
hormones and can also secrete inhibiting
hormones to turn off secretion of hormones.
Low
It is almost always controlled by negative
feedback loops
If blood concentration declines below a
minimum, more hormones are secreted. If
blood concentration exceeds maximum,
hormone production is halted.
High
35.Will TSH-RH be high or low?
High
36.Will TSH level be high or low?
37.In an over-secreting thyroid tumor will
TH be high or low?
High
Low
38.Will TSH-RH be high or low?
Low
39.Will TSH levels be high or low?
40.In an under-secreting pituitary tumor
will TSH be high or low?
Low
41.Will TH be high or low?
Low
42.Will TSH-RH be high or low
High
43.In an over-secreting pituitary tumor will
TSH be high or low?
High
44.Will TH be high or low?
High
45.Will TSH-RH be high or low?
Low
46.In an under-secreting hypothalamic
tumor will TSH-RH be high or low?
Low
47.Will TSH be high or low?
Low
48.Will TH be high or low?
Low
49.In an over-secreting hypothalamic tumor High
will TSH-RH be high or low?
50.Will TSH be high or low?
High
51.Will TH be high or low?
52.What causes a goiter, hyperthyroidism
or hypothyroidism?
53.What is the functional unit of the
thyroid gland?
54.What secretes colloid?
High
Either. You have to measure the hormone
levels to see what is causing it.
The thyroid follicle
55.What is colloid?
Water with Thyroglobin proteins
56.What stimulates the follicular cells to
make Thyroglobin?
57.Where does thyroglobulin (TG) go
when it first leaves the cell?
58.How is TG changed after it leaves the
cell, while it is on its way to the thyroid
follicle for storage?
59.When iodine is attached to TG, what is
this process called?
60.On what amino acid is iodine attached
in a thyroglobulin molecule?
61. What is the name of the enzyme that
adds the iodine to TG?
62. What drug deactivates peroxidase?
TSH
Follicular cells
It is stored inside the thyroid follicle, in a pink
liquid called “Colloid”
Iodine is added to it.
Iodination
Tyrosine
peroxidase
PTU
63. What drug can be used for people who
have Graves’ disease?
64. What would happen to hormone levels
in a patient with PTU?
65.What is the most abundant form of TG?
66.What is the active form of TG?
67.What happens to T2?
PTU (Propylthiouracil)
68.What effect does TH have on GI
motility?
69.What effect does TH have on mental
activity?
70.What effect does TH have on endocrine
activity?
71.What effect does TH have on growth?
Increases GI motility
72.What effect does TH have on brain
development?
73.What effect does TH have on fat
metabolism?
74.What effect does TH have on the CNS?
Promotes brain development
75.What effect does TH have on sleep?
Inhibits sleep
Iodine cannot be attached to TG, so TH cannot
be made, so TSH and TSH-RH increase.
T4 is the most abundant form.
T3 is the most active form.
It is recycled, not released
Increases mental activity
Increases endocrine activity
Promotes growth in children
Increases fat metabolism
Excites it
76.What occurs after follicular cells receive They take back Thyroglobin (TG) from where
the TSH signal from the pituitary gland? it was stored in the follicle (endocytosis),
cleave the TG into segments, and secrete the
longer segments into blood (exocytosis.)
77.What would happen to TSH-RH, TSH,
and TH in the following conditions:
78.Antibodies attacking thyroid gland,
destroying the gland
-TH low, TSH-RH and TSH high
79.Antibodies binding to the TSH receptor, - TH and TSH high, TSH-RH low
stimulating it
- TH high, TSH-RH and TSH low.
80.Graves’ Disease
81.Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis
- TH low, TSH-RH and TSH high.
82.What is the TS ratio?
Iodine in thyroid divided by iodine in serum
83.What is required to bring iodine into
cells? Why?
84.What happens when TSH is released?
ATP is needed because iodine has to go
against its electrical gradient.
Follicular cells become larger
Metabolism increases
Increased O2 consumption, esp. mitochondria
Heat is generated
Sympathetic neurons in the heart.
Increase force of contraction and increase
heart rate.
85.What are beta receptors?
86.What do they do?
87.What effect does TSH have on beta
receptors?
88.When TH stimulates neurons a person
feels what?
Stimulates them.
89.Not enough TH?
They lose interest, become sluggish,
hypoglycemia
90.Too Much TH?
91.When blood sugar is high, what
hormone is released by the pancreas and
what does it do?
92.What if there is more sugar in the blood
than the cells can use? Where does the
excess sugar go?
93.When blood glucose is low, what
hormone is released by the pancreas and
what does it do?
They get muscles tremors and hyperglycemia
Insulin is released, tells the cells to take in the
sugar from the bloodstream.
94.Describe the process of
Gluconeogenesis
The liver takes fatty acids (leftover from fat
metabolism) and joins them to amino acids
(from broken down proteins), and makes new
glucose molecules that you did not get from
eating glucose. These new glucose molecules
are then released into the bloodstream to
elevate blood glucose levels.
Hyperglycemia
95.Blood glucose levels that are too high
are called?
96.Low blood glucose is called what?
Feels more alert, observing their environment
with more interest
excess sugar is taken to the liver and converted
to glycogen for storage
Glucagon tells the liver to take the glycogen
and break it back down into glucose and
release it into the bloodstream.
Hypoglycemia
97.During hyperglycemia, what hormone is
released?
98.What gland releases it?
99.What is its effect on the blood sugar
levels?
100. During hypoglycemia, what hormone is
released?
101. What gland releases it?
102. What is its effect on the blood sugar
levels?
103. What two processes raise blood sugar?
Insulin
104. What are 2 methods of measuring
plasma concentration of hormones?
–RIA (radioimmunoassay)
–ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assay)
Graves’ Disease
105. Hyperthyroidism is most commonly
caused by what disease?
106. What are the signs of Graves’ disease?
Pancreas
Lowers blood sugar
Glucagon
Pancreas
Raises blood sugar
Gluconeogenesis and glycogen breakdown
107. What causes Graves’ disease?
Thin person with eyes that stick out like a bug
(exophthalmoses).
It is an autoimmune disease
108. -What effect does Graves’ disease have
on TH levels? On TSH? On TSH-RH?
Increased TH
Decreased TSH-RH and TSH
109. Over-secreting tumors can be a sign of
what?
Hyperthyroidism
110. What are two ways to treat
hyperthyroidism?
111. What is the problem with having a
thyroidectomy?
Thyroid oblation or surgical removal
(thyroidectomy)
The parathyroid glands might become
damaged, loss of blood calcium levels, can
cause cardiac arrest.
Hashimoto’s thyroiditis (autoimmune)
Iodine deficiency
Thyroid tumor, under-secreting
Defective thyroid enzyme(s)
Thyromegaly
112. What 4 things can cause
hypothyroidism?
113. What is the medical term for a goiter?
114. What does idiopathic mean?
115. What does iatrogenic mean?
116. What is cretinism?
Idiopathic = unknown cause
Iatrogenic = medical treatment caused the
condition
A baby with hypothyroidism because the
mother had a lack of iodine.
117. What is the mental status of cretinism?
Mental retardation
118. If you give a cretinism baby a healthy
diet, will it improve? Why?
No, because TH was not present during fetal
development, when myelination and synaptic
formation needed it.
119. What condition is when a baby's thyroid Congenital Hypothyroidism
gland is not secreting enough thyroid
hormone?
This is a problem with the baby, not the
120. Is it a problem with the baby or the
mother.
mother?
121. Congenital Hypothyroidism babies have Cretinism
similar symptoms to what other
childhood condition?
122. What other hormone needs to be present TH
for GH to work?
123. What is an autoimmune disorder where Hashimoto's thyroiditis
antibodies attack and destroy the thyroid
gland?
124. In Hashimoto's thyroiditis, what
TH goes down while TSH-RH and TSH are
happens to the TH, TSH-RH, and TSH
elevated
levels?
125. In Hashimoto's thyroiditis does the
Enlarges
healthy remaining thyroid tissue enlarge
or get smaller?
126. What type of edema is non-pitting?
Myxedema
127. A person who has depressed mental and
emotional activity, psychosis, not easily
in touch with reality and detached may
be signs of what hormonal disorder?
Hashimoto's thyroiditis
128. In iodine deficiency, which hormones
are elevated, and which are decreased?
129. What type of genetic defect can cause
hypothyroidism?
130. A defect in any part of the gene
expression of thyroglobulin in follicular
cells could lead to the cause of what
disorder?
TH is decreased, TSH and TSH-RH are
increased
Genetic defects in the thyroglobulin
Hypothyroidism
131. What mechanism does the adrenal gland
use to secrete its hormones?
132. What endocrine gland secretes
catecholamines (be specific)?
133. What are catecholamines?
134. Name two catecholamines
135. What three things does the adrenal
cortex secrete?
136. What happens to blood sugar levels
when epinephrine is secreted?
137. How does epinephrine affect the heart,
digestion, respiratory system, and blood
pressure?
Adrenal medulla uses a neuronal mechanism
Adrenal cortex uses a hormonal mechanism
Adrenal medulla
Hormones that are also neurotransmitters in
the sympathetic nervous system. They are
what trigger fight or flight responses.
Epinephrine and norepinephrine
Aldosterone
Androgens/Estrogen
Cortisol
It is an antagonist to insulin. It elevates blood
sugar by breaking glycogen down in the liver
and also increasing gluconeogenesis
Heart rate and force increases
Digestion slows
Respiratory passages open
BP goes up from peripheral vasoconstriction
Adrenal cortex
138. What endocrine gland secretes nothing
but steroids?
139. What is an example of a
Aldosterone
mineralocorticoid?
140. What is an example of a glucocorticoid? Cortisol
141. What does cortisol do?
142. What layer of the adrenal cortex
produces aldosterone?
143. What layer produces the sex hormones?
144. What layer produces cortisol?
145. What classification is aldosterone?
146. What part of the body does aldosterone
target, and what is its effect in that
organ?
147. What is its effect on blood pressure?
148. What part of the adrenal gland makes
aldosterone (be specific)?
Stimulates fat and protein catabolism to use
for gluconeogenesis
Zona glomerulosa produces aldosterone
Zona fasciculate and Zona reticularis produce
the sex hormones and cortisol
Mineralocorticoid
Kidney; increases the amount of salt and water
absorbed.
It increases blood pressure
Zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex
149. By what mechanism is aldosterone
secreted?
150. What triggers aldosterone?
151. Any word that ends in “-ogen” means
what?
It has a humeral release mechanism
High potassium levels and A2
Means they are zymogens (proteins which are
released in an inactive form
152. When BP is too low, how does the body
compensate?
Baroreceptors detect low BP, kidney releases
renin, which cuts angiotensinogen into A2,
which stimulates adrenal cortex to make
aldosterone and stimulates the hypothalamus
to release ADH. This raises BP
153. What effect do high levels of A2 have
on other hormones?
Stimulates the adrenal cortex to make more
aldosterone, and also stimulates the
hypothalamus to release ADH.
154. What effect do high levels of A2 have
on BP?
155. What are Androgens?
It raises blood pressure
Male sex-hormones (the hormones responsible
for male secondary sex characteristics, such as
facial hair and low voice).
The most well-known androgen is
Testosterone. It is a steroid hormone, like all
the adrenal cortex hormones.
156. What is the main androgen secreted by
the adrenal gland?
DHEA
157. What are two of the hormones that
DHEA can be converted into?
Testosterone or estrogen
158. What does hyper-secretion of androgens No effect
cause in males?
159. What is the primary hormone
responsible for male characteristics?
Testosterone from the testes is the primary
hormone responsible for male characteristics
160. What does hyper-secretion of androgens Masculinization – facial hair and low voice
cause in females?
161. What effect on female sex
characteristics does hyper-secretion of
estrogen cause in females?
No effect
162. What is the primary hormone
responsible for female sex
characteristics?
Estrogen in the ovaries
163. What does hyper-secretion of estrogen
cause in males?
Feminization – breast development
164. What are two other names for cortisol?
corticosterol; hydrocortisone
165. Which gland in the endocrine system
releases cortisol?
Adrenal gland, in the adrenal cortex
166. What common situation causes an
increased demand for cortisol?
Stress
167. If the body cannot keep up with the
It will cause androgens to be secreted instead
demand for cortisol, what will happen to of cortisol.
the excess ACTH?
168. If excess androgens are made, what
symptoms result?
More masculine characteristics
169. What kinds of stress can cause excess
cortisol production?
emotional or physical (fighting an infection,
fasting, injury)
170. What effect does cortisol have on noninjured, non-stressed tissues?
It makes them stop using glucose (except the
brain). The cells then have to break down fat
to use for energy.
171. What effect does cortisol have on
skeletal muscles?
Tells them to break down their proteins to
release the free amino acids into the blood.
172. After cortisol’s effect on skeletal
muscle, what happens to amino acids in
the blood?
The liver adds them to fatty acids to convert
them into new glucose molecules that you did
not get by eating food.
173. What is gluconeogenesis?
The process by which the liver makes new
glucose molecules that you did not get from
food.
174. What effect does cortisol have on blood
sugar levels?
It elevates it because the new glucose made in
the liver is released into the bloodstream. This
sugar is then used by the cells that are under
stress and need extra energy.
175. What two hormones may cause
symptoms of diabetes (high blood and
urine sugar) in a person who does not
have diabetes?
Cortisol and prednisone
176. What is the everyday function of
cortisol, when the body is not under
stress?
Helps maintain normally elevated blood
glucose levels between meals.
177. What is the function of glucocorticoids?
Stimulates the smooth muscles in the walls of
blood vessels to cause vasoconstriction, which
will get the blood pressure up when it is too
low.
178. What naturally occurring hormone may
be used in high doses as a medicine for
asthma? How does it work?
Prednisone. In high doses, it does the opposite
of what it normally does: In high doses, it
suppresses smooth muscle constriction in the
walls of blood vessels, so their bronchioles
cannot close up.
179. Will people with asthma have high or
low levels of prednisone in their body?
High
180. What are the side effects of taking
prednisone?
Prednisone can make you hungry and make it
hard to sleep because brain is stimulated.
181. If a person abruptly stops taking
prednisone what will happen?
They will get low blood pressure and low
blood sugar
182. What disorder has the same symptoms
as a person who abruptly stops taking
prednisone?
Addison’s Disease
183. What are two ways to prescribe
prednisone?
High dose, short duration (okay to stop
abruptly)
184. Which of these ways is okay to stop
abruptly?
Low dose, long duration (must taper off)
185. What are the two classifications of
adrenal gland deficiencies?
Primary and secondary adrenal insufficiency
186. Which one is Addison’s disease?
187. What two things can cause Addison’s
disease?
Addison’s is primary adrenal insufficiency
entire adrenal gland is destroyed due to
atrophy or autoimmune disorder
Tuberculosis –disease attacks adrenal gland
188. What is the difference in hormone
levels between primary and secondary
adrenal insufficiency?
189. What causes secondary adrenal
insufficiency?
Primary has increased ACTH
Secondary has decreased ACTH
190. What are the signs/symptoms of
Adrenal gland deficiencies?
 Water/salt imbalance
 plasma volume depletion (low BP)
 low blood glucose
 pigmentation
 Addisonian crisis
Low blood pressure and low blood glucose, to
the point where it is a medical emergency
Hands, fingers, and gums
191. What is Addisonian crisis?
192. What parts of the body are affected by
Addison’s disease?
Rapid withdrawal of pharmacologic doses of
cortisol
193. In Addison’s disease, what are the levels Cortisol is low
of cortisol?
ACTH and ACTH-RH are high
194. What are the levels of ACTH?
195. What are the levels of ACTH-RH?
196. Why do you get skin pigmentation from
excess ACTH?
ACTH is a peptide (protein) hormone,
synthesized from a larger protein called POMC. When it is cut into two segments, one
becomes ACTH and the other becomes
melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH).
When a lot of ACTH is made, a lot of MSH is
made, and skin gets darker.
197. Where is the problem in secondary
adrenal insufficiency?
Pituitary is the problem, not secreting enough
ACTH
198. In secondary adrenal insufficiency, what Cortisol is low
are the levels of cortisol?
ACTH-RH is high
199. What are the levels of ACTH-RH?
200. What are the symptoms of Cushing’s
disease and Cushing’s syndrome?
Buffalo hump, moon face, muscle loss, thin
striated skin, hyperglycemia, immune
suppression. Females get masculinization
features (facial hair, thicker jaw and skull)
201. What is CAH?
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia. In a female
fetus causes the clitoris to enlarge and the labia
major fuse into a scrotal sac.
202. What causes CAH?
Genetic problem, missing the enzyme to
convert cholesterol into anything except
androgens.
203. Are boys affected by CAH?
Boys are not affected
204. What treatment is there for girls with
CAH?
Girls need surgery and cortisol for life
205. What is growth hormone also known
as?
Somatotropin
206. What does GH do?
GH stimulates all cells to increase protein
synthesis, fat utilization, and gluconeogenesis.
207. What is the result of excess GH during
pre-puberty?
Gigantism
208. What is the result of excess GH after
growth plates closed?
acromegaly
209. What hormones are antagonistic to
insulin?
GH, Cortisol, Epinephrine
210. Which gland is most responsible for
raising blood calcium levels?
211. Which hormone stimulates osteoclasts
to chew away bone, releasing the bones
calcium into the bloodstream?
Parathyroid Glands
212. What hormone has an action that is
antagonistic (opposite action) to
parathyroid hormone, and where is this
antagonist produced?
Calcitonin; produced in thyroid gland
Parathyroid Hormone
213. Parathyroid levels are released by what? Hormonal Mechanism
214. What are the 3 ways that the Parathyroid
glands raise blood calcium levels?
215. PTH and Vit D have an effect on what
three body parts?
216. What is the effect at each of these
locations?
a. Stimulates osteoclasts to move bone
calcium into bloodstream.
b. Stimulates the intestines to absorb more
calcium from diet.
c. Stimulates the kidneys to stop excreting
calcium.
Bone: increases bone resorption by osteoclast
activity
Kidney: increases calcium reabsorption
Intestine: increases calcium absorption