* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Biogeographic processes
Introduced species wikipedia , lookup
Biodiversity wikipedia , lookup
Island restoration wikipedia , lookup
Molecular ecology wikipedia , lookup
Restoration ecology wikipedia , lookup
Latitudinal gradients in species diversity wikipedia , lookup
River ecosystem wikipedia , lookup
Habitat conservation wikipedia , lookup
Human impact on the nitrogen cycle wikipedia , lookup
Biodiversity action plan wikipedia , lookup
Natural environment wikipedia , lookup
Reconciliation ecology wikipedia , lookup
Photosynthesis wikipedia , lookup
Ecological succession wikipedia , lookup
Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project wikipedia , lookup
Perovskia atriplicifolia wikipedia , lookup
Ecological fitting wikipedia , lookup
Renewable resource wikipedia , lookup
CHAPTER 8 BIOGEOGRAPHIC PROCESSES VISUALIZING PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY BY ALAN STRAHLER AND ARTHUR STRAHLER Jarmila Bílková Faculty of Science Department of Geography Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in ÚSTÍ NAD LABEM CZECH REPUBLIC Contents BIOGEOGRAPHIC PROCESSES • Biogeography is a branch of geography the distribution of plants and animals—the biota —over the Earth • Ecological biogeography: the distributions of organisms in time and space • Historical biogeography: evolution, dispersal, and extinction of species through time ENERGY AND MATTER FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS • Ecology is the study of the interactions between life-forms and their environment • Ecosystem = group of organisms and the environment with which they interact Salt marsh Tundra Savana ENERGY AND MATTER FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS The Food Web (food chain): describes how food energy flows from organism to organism within an ecosystem. 3.Primary producers (the snails, insects, and fishes): are plants and animals that are able to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide, water and light energy through a process known as photosynthesis 2. Consumers (the mammals, birds, and larger fishes): feed on the primary producers or on other consumers 3. Decomposers (microorganisms and bacteria): feed on dead plant and animal matter from all levels of the food web • Energy is lost at each level in food web by respiration • Only 10 to 50% of the energy stored at one level passes up to the next level ENERGY AND MATTER FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS Photosynthesis and Respiration Photosynthesis: is a biochemical reaction which results in the production of carbohydrates and oxygen using water, carbon dioxide, and light energy H20 + CO2 +light energy Rates of photosynthesis depend on light intensity, duration of daylight, and temperature. Photosynthesis only occurs when light is available CHOH + O2 ENERGY AND MATTER FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS Photosynthesis and Respiration Respiration: is the opposite of photosynthesis • In this process, carbohydrate is broken down and combines with oxygen to yield carbon dioxide and water. CHOH + O2 CO2 + H2O + chemical energy • Gross photosynthesis is the total amount of carbohydrate produced by photosynthesis • Net photosythesis is the amount of carbohydrate remaining after respiration has broken down a sufficient amount of carbohydrate to feed the plant • Net photosynthesis increases with temperature until approximately 18°C, after which it declines as the rate of respiration increases faster than the rate of photosynthesis NET PHOTOSYNTHESIS = GROSS PHOTOSYNTHESIS − RESPIRATION ENERGY AND MATTER FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS Net Primary Production Net primary production: annual yield of useful energy produced by the ecosystem, in grams (square meter) year Biomass: the dry weight of organic matter per unit of surface area within an ecosystem grams/square meter or tons/hectare •Equatorial rainforests and freshwater swamps and marshes are among the most productive ecosystems, while deserts are least productive Forests have the greatest biomass Day length, air and soil temperature, and water availability are the most important CLIMATIC FACTORS that control net primary productivity ENERGY AND MATTER FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS Biomass as an Energy Source • Biomass is an important source of renewable energy • Energy can be obtained by burning firewood, or through intermediate products such as charcoal, methane gas, and alcohol • the conversion of agricultural wastes to alcohol yeast microorganisms are used to convert the carbohydrate to alcohol through fermentation ENERGY AND MATTER FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS The Carbon Cycle •The carbon cycle is a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon flows among storage pools in the atmosphere, ocean, and on the land •Biogeochemical cycles define the pathways of particular nutrients or materials through the Earth's ecosystem •All life is composed of carbon compounds ENERGY AND MATTER FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS The Nitrogen Cycle •The nitrogen cycle is another important biogeochemical cycle •Nitrogen makes up 78 percent of the atmosphere volume •nitrogen can only be utilized through nitrogen fixation and is lost to the biosphere through denitrification ECOLOGICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY Ecological biogeography examines the distribution patterns of plants and animals from the viewpoint of their physiological needs Bacis terms: • Habitat: subdivision of the environment according to the needs and preferences of organisms or groups of organisms • Ecological niche: describes how a species obtains energy and how it influences other species within its own environment • Community: a group of interacting organisms that occupy a particular habitat Factors controlling distribution of plants and animals: Water, Temperature and Other Climatic Factors Bioclimatic Frontiers Geomorphic and Edaphic (Soil) Factors Interaction among Species ECOLOGICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY Water Need • Species have a variety of adaptations to help them cope with the abundance or scarcity of water • Characterized by waxy coating on leaves or reduced leaf area, needlelike leaves or spines, light colored to reflect light • Xerophyte: plant adapted to dry conditions • Phreatophyte: plants that obtain water from ground water Succulents plants with thickened leaves and stems (Prickly pear cactus Opuntia) ECOLOGICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY Live oak – sclerophyll Water Need • Tropophyte: plant adapted to changing conditions/dry season alternating with wet season • Deciduous: plants that drop their leaves seasonally • Evergreens: plants that keep most of their leaves more than 1 year • Sclerophylls: mediterranean climat´s plants often xerophytic, evergreen, with hard, leathery leaves Xeric animals: •active only at night, stay in burrows in the day •do not sweat through skin glands ECOLOGICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY Temperature Temperature affects: •physiological processes in plants and animal tissues •colder climate generally fewer species •cold-blooded animals lack the ability to internally control temperature (e.g. reptiles) some vertebrates are in hibernation (Bats) •warm-blooded animals create their own heat, but need more food (e.g mammals) characteristics such as fur, hair, and feathers, thick layer of fat provide excellent insulation ECOLOGICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY Other Climatic Factors Light affects: • plant distribution • plant growth rate • timing of budding, flowering, fruiting, leaf shedding • animal behavior • wind affects vegetation structure • Bioclimatic frontier - critical level of climatic stress beyond which a species cannot survive ECOLOGICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY Geomorphic and Edaphic Factors • Geomorphic (landform) factors: include slope angle, slope aspect, and relief (which way the slope is facing) • Edaphic (soil) factors: include soil particle size and the amount and nature of organic matter in the soil ECOLOGICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY Disturbance Disturbance includes: fire, flood, volcanic eruption, storm waves, high winds ECOLOGICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY Interactions Among Species Negative interactions: • Predation: on species feeding on another • Parasitism: one species gaining nutrition from another • Herbivory: animal grazing reduces the plant population viability • Allelopathy: chemical toxins emitted by one plant species inhibits the growth of another Positive interactions: b)Commensalisms: one species benefits while the other is unaffected c)Protocooperation: both species benefit from the relationship d)Mutualism: one or both species cannot survive without the other ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION, CHANGE AND EQUILIBRIUM Ecological Succession: sequence of distinctive plant and animal communities occurring within a given area of newly formed land or land cleared of plant cover by burning, clear cutting, or other agents •The stable community, which is the end point of succession, is the climax •Primary succession: succession on a new deposit of rock or mineral fragments •Secondary succession: succession on a previously vegetated area that has been disturbed •Old-field succession: on abandoned farmland • Disturbances may interrupt succession, alter ecosystems and change successional pathways: wind, fire, floods, introduction of new species Secondary succession on old fields HISTORICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY Evolution •Evolution: the creation of diversity of life-forms through the process of natural selection •Natural selection: individuals with qualities best suited to the environment are more likely to propagate: “survival of the fittest” •Sources of variation: 1. Mutation: changes in genetic material 2. Recombination: offspring receives 2 slightly different copies (alleles) of each gene from parents Genus: collection of closely related species that share a similar genetic evolutionary history HISTORICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY Speciation • Speciation: the process by which species are differentiated and maintained • Speciation arises from several processes acting over time • Genetic drift: chance mutations that don’t have any particular benefit, change the genetic composition of a population • Gene flow: opposite to genetic drift--populations exchange genes as individuals move among populations; keeps gene pool uniform HISTORICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY Extinction Over geologic time, all species are doomed to extinction Conditions change, and species unable to adapt become extinct Catastrophic natural events may cause extinctions Human activities may cause extinctions HISTORICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY Dispersal •nearly all types of organisms can move from a location of origin to new sites •movement of individuals from source location •slow extension of species over long periods = dispersal HISTORICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY Distribution Patterns •Endemic species: species found in one location or region, and nowhere else •Cosmopolitan species: distributed very widely – homo sapiens •Disjunction: one or more closely related species found in widely separated regions • Two Cosmopolitan species: peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) and the human (Homo sapiens) HISTORICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY Biogeographic Regions Closely related species often found near each other BIODIVERSITY • Biodiversity: the variety of biological life on Earth or within a region • Human activity on Earth is rapidly decreasing biodiversity by contributing to extinctions through dispersing competing organisms, hunting, fire, habitat alteration, and fragmentation • Tropical and equatorial regions have more species Degree of endangerment of plant and animal groups in the United States (Data from Nature Conservancy) BIODIVERSITY Geographic areas in which biodiversity is especially high and also threatened are referred to as hotspots (National Geographic Image Collection) The sources used • STRAHLER, Alan H a Arthur Newell STRAHLER. Introducing physical geography. 4th ed. Hoboken, N.J.: J. Wiley, c2006, xxv, 728 p. fourth edition. ISBN 04-716-7950-X • Wiley. HELSEL, Dennis R. Statistics for censored environmental data using Minitab and R [online]. 5nd ed. Hoboken: John Wiley, c2012 [cit. 2013-10-24]. Dostupné z: http://bcs.wiley.com/hebcs/Books?action=chapter&bcsId=2190&itemId=047167950X&chap terId=17819 • http://bcs.wiley.com/hebcs/Books?action=chapter&bcsId=2190&itemId=047167950X&chap terId=17819 • https://www.google.cz/imghp?hl=cs&tab=wi&authuser=0&ei=skOSUtqhI8 THANK YOU FOR YOU ATTENTION