Download Discussion Thread 5: Rome Extends its Dominance into the Western

Discussion Thread 6: The Punic Wars and the Extension of Rome’s Dominance into
the Western Mediterranean
I.
Primum Bellum Punicum (Anno Urbis Conditǽ 488)
Now we will trace the steps by which Rome went beyond Italy and extended its
hegemony into the Western Mediterranean. Through its conquest especially of
southern Italy, Rome was brought into direct conflict with another “world power” in
the form of its neighbor Carthage. Carthage was a Phoenician colony which had
been established during the late 9th century BCE (note the implications here for
Aeneus visiting Carthage and his affair with Queen Dido shortly after Troy had fallen
in 1184 BCE)and had dominated the Mediterranean world for three centuries. At the
time of the conflict (c. 265-241 BCE) Carthage had some form of a republican form
of government, a vast navy, an army built on mercenary forces, and a vast and
exceptionally wealthy economy based on maritime trade and tributes from conquered
territories; it is appropriate to speak of a Carthaginian Empire that was at this time
far more advanced than Rome in infrastructure.
There is some evidence of very early treaties between Rome and Carthage dating to
the very early republic and perhaps even back to the time of the kings. In fact, since
they were essentially landsmen Rome had no desire to compete with Carthage on the
sea until they conquered Tarentum which gave Rome easy trade access to the lower
Mediterranean basin. With this new territory, it soon became obvious that the
Mediterranean was not big enough for both Rome and Carthage: one of them would
have to be destroyed!
We shall now see how the “spark” that led to the First Punic War (c. 264-241 BCE)
was that a group of east Sicilian Mercenaries (they called themselves “Mamertines”
meaning “Sons of Mars”) asked for Roman help versus Carthage. This was strongly
opposed by the Senate but the Popular Assembly, incited by the prospect of new
lands, rich plunder, and wresting control of the Carthaginian Straits away from
Carthage, voted for war. This first step outside of Italy began a 50 year start to
imperial expansion that would fundamentally alter through strengthening the
character of the Roman Empire as it would become international in nature.
II.
Secundum Bellum Punicum (Anno Urbis Conditǽ 535)
The Second Punic War was of momentous significance for Rome as it made her the
mistress of the Western Mediterranean and started her on the path of imperial
expansionism from which there was no turning back. Thus was decided the destiny of the
Western Mediterranean basin for generations to come. It transformed all phases of
Roman life, culture and institutions and made most people under Roman rule more equal
with uniform status.
Yet, economically and socially, the war had devastating consequences for Italy. Years of
plunder by Hannibal, while not resulting in the sack of the city of Rome, had left the
Italian countryside devastated, killing 1/6 of the people leaving many regions of fertile
farmland depopulated. Small farms were taken over by the wealthy; previous owners
began working what had been their own land as tenants or wage farmers or went to Rome
to seek better fortunes; the ranks of the unemployed hence swelled within the city.
Estimates are that over 2,000,000 acres were taken over by the state, leased back to the
wealthy at a low rate, and ultimately worked by slaves. Hence began the system of
latifundia, which in essence were huge plantations held by absentee owners; the slave
labor would become the foundation for the beginnings of the subsequent Roman
Revolution; that is, the period from 133 BCE to 31 BCE which defined Rome’s
transition from a Republic to the Imperial Period (i.e., the period of the emperors) .
Remember that, as a result of its seizure of Corsica, Sicily and Sardinia following the
First Punic War, Rome now controlled virtually the entire western Mediterranean. And
so, if Carthage were to seek its revenge, it would somehow have to do so by land. To
start, Carthage established outposts in Spain. Conflict over the city of Saguntum which
had sought Roman protection would lead to the Second Punic War. Hannibal Barca, then
around age 26, was the Carthaginian General; he had been taught from boyhood to hate
the Romans and that it was his task to defeat them. He led an eight month siege of
Saguntum which resulted in Rome sending a delegation to Carthage demanding
Hannibal’s surrender and insisting that he be handed over to Rome. The leader of the
Roman delegation held up two folds of his toga and said “I bring you peace and war, men
of Carthage. Choose whichever you wish.” The Carthaginians replied “Give whatever
you will.” Dropping one of the folds, the Roman diplomat replied “Then it is War.”
Initially the advantage seemed to be on the Roman side as Carthage was much weaker
than earlier. But Carthage possessed what Rome lacked: a military genius in command,
and Rome sent politicians in control of the legions that faced him.
Hannibal seldom made mistakes and was brilliant at tempting his opponents to error and
then exploiting their mistakes. However, he made one fatal miscalculation that would
cost Carthage the war, and that was that Rome’s allies would desert her; especially the
central Italian allies once they saw that Hannibal would certainly be victorious. They key
to Rome’s victory is that her central Italian allies never deserted her despite Hannibal’s
formidable presence and victories.
To avoid Roman control of the seas, Hannibal invaded Italy from Spain by crossing the
Alps during the winter with about 40,000 foot soldiers, 8,000 cavalry, and 25 elephants.
He reached Italy during the winter of 218 BCE and defeated the Romans at Trebia River
and had an even greater victory on the shores of Lake Trasimene during the spring of 217
BCE; only about 10,000 of Rome’s 40,000 troops escaped. Hannibal’s plan of attack
became very clear; he had no intent of attacking the city, but would instead focus on
posing as the deliverer of the Italians from Roman hegemony, thus breaking the Roman
Federation. But the wise policy of offering citizenship now paid off for the Romans; the
alliances held!
Regardless, the situation in Italy was becoming desperate. A Roman named Quintus
Fabius Maximus was appointed dictator to deal with the situation; his strategy was to
wage a guerilla war against Hannibal, avoiding direct confrontation essentially because of
the weakness of the Roman cavalry. The Romans soon tired of this, and when Quintus’
dictatorship expired two inexperienced consuls were put in command of an 80,000 troop
Roman army to confront Hannibal head-on. At that Battle of Cannae, Hannibal
completely out-generaled Rome. He pulled back his center as the Romans attacked; as
they advanced heavily armed flanks fell upon the Romans while the Carthaginian cavalry
attacked the army from the rear. It is reported that the Romans were so compressed by
this tactic that they couldn’t even draw their swords. No one knows for sure but it seems
that less than 10,000 Romans escaped. The Romans once again turned to the “delayer”
tactics, with the result that Hannibal spent about 14 years in Italy ravishing the
countryside, destroying food supplies and destroying towns. Yet he could never win
enough support from the local populations to lay siege to Rome or score any more
decisive victories; they also worked to cut off Hannibal’s supply line from Spain and
were successful at doing so.
Around 210 BCE there arose in Rome a commander with military abilities similar to that
of Hannibal’s. The son of a proconsul, Publius Scipio was only 25 years old, and it was
under his command that the Carthaginians were finally driven from Spain. One of the
defeated generals, slipped away and escaped into Italy with his forces. Three armies were
sent to meet him at the Battle of Metaurus River (207 BCE) with the result that the
Carthaginian general was killed, their forces defeated, and so Rome had its first land
victory of the war.
Scipio’s strategy was to draw Hannibal out of Italy; to do so he reasoned that he would
have to attack Carthage itself. This successfully extracted Hannibal from Italy and, after
an interesting series of events, led to a final confrontation at the inland town of Zama
(202 BCE). This time due to weaknesses in Carthaginian Cavalry Hannibal was out
dueled, with the terms of peace including that (a) Carthage must give up any remaining
conquered territory outside the city; pay an indemnity of 200 talents per year for the next
50 years, and surrender all elephants and ships except 10. Rome now dominated Spain
and most of Africa including Carthage, and Scipio was now called Africanus as a result
of his triumph.
The Tertium Bellum Punicum (Anno Urbis Conditǽ 620) was hardly a war at all but
rather a massacre. To its credit, Carthage held out for a few years, but in the end Rome
obliterated the City of Carthage. Adding the Greek territories to its hegemon close to the
same time, by the 130’s BCE the Republic now ruled an Empire, though it had not yet
taken the next step of becoming an Imperial system of rule. The transition from Republic
to an Imperial state—that which was ruled by emperors—is the subject to which we will
now turn as we examine the Roman Revolution.