Download 2. Current state assessment of the marine

NET.MARI.MED
Network for Supporting Marine Affairs in the Mediterranean
THE RELEVANCE OF
OPERATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY
TO THE
ATTAINMENT OF A BETTER STATUS
FOR THE
MALTESE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
AND APPLICATIONS TO
MARINE-BASED ACTIVITIES
NET.MARI.MED PROJECT
IOI-Malta Operational Centre
DR. ALAN DEIDUN
International
Ocean Institute
This project is conducted under the Interreg IIIB
Archimed Community Initiative and is partly
financed by the European Regional Development
Funds (ERDF) which forms part of the Structural
Funds Programme for Malta (2004 – 2006)
December 2008
1
Physical
Oceanography
Unit
University of
Malta
Contents:
1. Scope of the report .......................................................................................................... 3
2. Current state assessment of the marine environment of the Maltese Islands ................. 3
3. SWOT Analysis of the local marine environment .......................................................... 8
4. Future scenarios and key forcings................................................................................. 11
5. Legal obligations and the role of operational oceanography techniques ...................... 16
6. Possible benefits of an operational oceanography framework to the local marine
environment ...................................................................................................................... 23
2
1. Scope of the report
The current report has the following main objectives:

to assess the current status of the local marine environment

to assess existing research facilities aimed at characterizing and monitoring the
same environment

to identify strengths, weaknesses and opportunities of and threats to the local
marine environment

to identify key forcings which would ensure the attainment of a positive future
scenario for the same environment and its end-users

to concretize the contribution of operational oceanographic techniques towards
the adherence to Malta’s legislative obligations in marine sectors

to investigate, on a sectoral basis, the potential contribution of operational
oceanography to the maintenance of a good marine environmental status and to
serve different end-users of the marine resource
2. Current state assessment of the marine environment
of the Maltese Islands
The status of the local marine environment, the related research activities facilities and
data-integration is assessed on the basis of a number of descriptors and indicators,
evaluated through an overview of existing literature.
2.1 Bathing water quality
According to the State of the Environment Report for the Maltese Islands 2007, 95% of
all coastal sites monitored in terms of bathing water quality conform with mandatory
values, 90% conform with the more stringent guide values whilst just 5% do not conform
with any set of benchmarks. This is symptomatic of a generally good and improving
bathing water quality of local coastal waters, especially since in 2002, in the EU-15, 13%
3
of all bathing water did not comply with the guide values. A dramatic improvement in
bathing water quality was registered over the 1996–2004 period. In fact, in 1996 only 55
percent of sites classified as First Class; in 2004, 83 percent made first class, indicating
an overall improvement, although 2002 had 98 percent of site classified First Class. In
addition, just four sites, at Marsaxlokk and at St. Paul’s Bay, registered bathing water
class downgrades over the 2001-2004 review period, while 59 percent of sites maintained
the same class, and 37 percent registered class upgrades.
2.2 Chemical parameters
Values for phenols, ammonia, arsenic, lead, mercury and cyanides were below detection
limit throughout the 2004 season. Values for heavy metals were almost all below
detection limits, except for cadmium and chromium at M’Xlokk, B’Buġa and Baħar iċĊagħaq. Within the same monitoring season, surface-active substances (detergents) were
also detected in minor quantities at these three sites. Phosphates were only detected in
minor quantities at three sites at M’Xlokk, Mġarr ix-Xini and Żewwieqa Bay. Values for
Nitrates and Kjeldahl N fluctuated for all sites and were often above the detection limit at
Marsaxlokk, Birzebbuġa, Baħar iċ-Ċagħaq, Qawra, Marsalforn and Għajn Tuffieħa.
Guideline standards for tarry residues and floating materials were met in over 96 percent
of cases across Malta and Gozo.
2.3 Nutrients, eutrophication and turbidity
The three water quality parameters of nutrient loads, extent of eutrophication and
turbidity do not prejudice the water quality of most coastal waters around the Maltese
Islands, with the exception of a few ‘hotspots’ harbouring ad hoc activities and facilities.
Examples of these include the waters around Wied Ghammieq and ic-Cumnija and within
St. Thomas Bay and the Spinola-Balluta areas (sewage outfalls1), within l-Hofra z-Zghira
(thermal pollution from the Delimara powerstation), Mgarr Harbour and Marsaxlokk
Harbour (including Birzebbuga and Pretty Bay – various anthropogenic activities,
including discharges from vessels, altered current regimes, etc), St. Paul’s Bay, Mistra,
1
At the time of writing, the effect on coastal water quality of the two operational sewage treatment plants
had not been fully assessed within published reports
4
Munxar and south Comino Channel (aquaculture activity) and Marsamxett Harbour
(yacht marina activities).
2.4 Overall assessment of coastal water quality and current pressures
Most of Malta’s coastal waters are of acceptable status, except for inside harbours and
near sewage outfalls, power station thermal discharge points, and to a lesser extent, in the
vicinity of fish farms and Magħtab. Sewage overflows in St. Paul’s Bay remain a matter
of concern. Malta’s bathing waters meet Bathing Water Directive quality standards and
mostly meet those of the Barcelona Convention, which are more stringent. Despite this
rosy assessment, burgeoning pressures on the local marine environment will probably
spell the adoption of better management measures or the deterioration of the quality of
the local marine environment.
2.5 Site Protection
The Maltese Islands have to date declared just one marine Site of Community Interest
(SCI), at Rdum Majjiesa. This is essentially a multi-purpose MPA covering a total area of
8Km2. A second (non-SCI) marine area is also protected, off Dwejra in Gozo, covering a
total of 3.06Km2. The total extent of the local marine area under some form of protective
regime (11.06Km2) constitutes just 0.28% of the total extent of the territorial waters
(3,976 Km2) of the islands.
By comparison, 3.28% of the 180km-long coastline is protected or managed (Abdulla et
al., 2008)2 and, with a few exceptions, all the designated terrestrial Natura 2000 sites
(SAC’s or SPA’s) have a coastal component.
The Malta Environment and Planning Authority (MEPA) is in the process of identifying
additional marine areas destined for protection as part of the Natura 2000 network.
2
Ameer Abdulla, Marina Gomei, Elodie Maison, and Catherine Piante (2008) Status of Marine Protected
Areas in the Mediterranean Sea. IUCN, Malaga and WWF, France. 152 pp.
5
2.6 Introduction of alien species
The introduction of aliens has been identified as one of the four greatest threats to the
world’s oceans (Globallast, 2004)3. To date, 48 alien (non-indigenous) marine species
have been recorded from waters around the Maltese Islands, (Sciberras & Schembri,
2007)4, the majority of which are molluscs (14 species), fish (13 species) and
macrophytes (10 species). Transportation via shipping and in connection with
aquaculture, as well as the range expansion of Lessepsian immigrants, appear to be the
most common vectors for entry, accounting for 20%, 11% and 32% respectively, of the
alien species recorded by Sciberras & Schembri (2007). Recently, two other nonindigenous species have been recorded from local waters – these include the sponge
Paraleucilla magna and the fish Selene dorsalis.
2.7 Coastal erosion
To date, there are no published studies addressing the rates and risks of coastal erosion
around the Maltese Islands. The main factor that accelerates erosion is human
intervention through development (MEPA, 2002)5. Road construction and hard
engineering structures such as sea walls within sandy beaches and their adjacent coastline
alter the sediment supply process and affect the wave energy impacting on the beach,
respectively. The coast road along Bahar ic- Caghaq is a typical example. Development
on coastal cliffs may accelerate the rate of erosion through destablisation from
engineering works during construction as well as increased load over the underlying rock.
Such a situation is evident with the hotels constructed at Ghajn Tuffieha and Golden Bay.
Abandonment of agricultural activities leads to breaching of rubble walls and extensive
soil erosion particularly during flooding after heavy rainfall. The impact of such run-off
may lead to a further destabilisation along rdum areas.
3
GloBallast, (2004). Ballast Water Treatment R&D Directory. November 2004. IMO London.
Sciberras, M. & Schembri, P.J. (2007). A critical review of records of alien marine species from the
Maltese Islands and surrounding waters (Central Mediterranean). Mediterranean Marine Science 8(1): 4166.
4
5
MEPA (2002). Coastal Strategy Topic Paper. February 2002: 123pp.
6
2.8 General assessment of the coastal and marine environment
The entry for the Maltese Islands in EEA (2005)6 reads as follows:
‘Malta has a coastline of 190 km, 43 % of which is heavily utilised (the remaining 57 %
being inaccessible). The built-up area comprises 24 % of the coast. This constitutes a
very high population density (1 300 persons/km2). The southern part of the island of
Malta is the area with the majority of human activities (cities, harbours, and tourist
resorts) and the major environmental problems, i.e. urban and industrial effluents. On
the island, 85 % of urban and industrial effluents are disposed of untreated while solid
wastes are mainly disposed of in two landfill sites. Southern Harbour District: Mostly
untreated urban and industrial effluents discharged into the sea through submarine
outfalls. Southern beaches in the vicinity of the Grand Harbour and Marsaxlokk Bay are
affected by microbial contamination. Oil pollution related to oil transport and shipping
occurs in the vicinity of the Grand Harbour and Msida Yacht Marina.’
2.9 Responsible bodies and existing facilities
A veritable chimera to the circumspect management of local marine resources is the
diversification in and lack of harmonization between the various bodies responsible for
data collection and for research. No national framework is responsible for the integration
of the various research efforts related to the marine environment; data is collected or
commissioned by different entities (including MEPA, MRRA, MMA, Port Control,
MRA, MCFS, University of Malta (e.g. Biology Department, IOI-Malta Operational
Centre and its Physical Oceanography Unit (PO-Unit)) etc.) without coordination and is
often done within the context of projects, thus without a sustained backbone. Existing
research facilities are mainly supported through funded shorted term projects. Real-time
data collection, and forecasting/numerical modelling activities, with services to end-users
is conducted by the PO-Unit at the University of Malta and limit to meteo and physical
marine parameters. This results in a stunted ability to rectifying events of degradation of
the local marine environment.
6
EEA (2005). Priority issues in the Mediterranean environment. EEA Report 05/2005. Copenhagen,
Denmark: 94pp.
7
3. SWOT Analysis of the local marine environment
The following section was compiled partly through the evaluation of completed
questionnaires, submitted to identified local stakeholders. The following aspects of the
local marine environment were evaluated within such an analysis:
-
current status of
-
assets of
-
threats to the local marine environment
The resulting SWOT analysis was instrumental in assessing the applicability of
operational oceanographic techniques to addressing identified weaknesses and exploiting
potential opportunities, consolidating existing strengths and warding potential threats to
the local marine environment and activities directly dependant on its welfare.
8
STRENGTHS
WEAKNESSES
(1) Potential for further research and development
(1) Relatively deep coastal waters along major part of coastline restricts
development to NE part of Malta or within shallow embayments – this
limits growth in potential sectors, such as nearshore renewable energy
generation, and gives rise to conflicts between different users
concentrated in the same space
(2) Strong expertise on local and Mediterranean marine
(2) Lack of enforcement of legislation dealing with environmental
ecosystems is available
monitoring and protection
(3) Geographical location at the centre of the
(3) Lack of collaboration and linkage between researchers and policy
Mediterranean
makers/Governmental entities
(4) A relatively large marine space (20 times the terrestrial
(4) Limited dissemination of expertise
footprint)
(5) The ratification of relevant coastal- and marine-related
(5) A low priority value being afforded by local policy makers to the
conventions and agreements
marine environment, as evidenced in the 2015 strategy
OPPORTUNITIES
THREATS
(1) ‘Good water’ quality is strong incentive for the foreign (1) Lack of public awareness about issues related to the marine
perception of Malta as a tourist destination
environment
9
(2) Malta’s international profile, in connection with the (2) Significant data gaps in the characterization of local marine benthic
ocean governance (Arvid Pardo legacy)
assemblages and in baseline values for various physico-chemical values
(3) Opportunities of funding from the EU
(3) Lack of implementation of good environmental management practices
(4) Opportunities for diversification based on the need for (4) Intensive use of resources derived from the marine environment and
more data to cover spatial extent and different levels of the increasing pressures/demand on such resources
ecosystem, i.e. at the species, habitat and ecosystem
levels;
(5) Turning Malta into a centre of excellence for (5) The ecological footprint of local marine-based anthropogenic activity
developing sectors, such as nearshore renewable energy
facilities and operational oceanography
10
4. Future scenarios and key forcings
4.1 Future scenarios
Three broad possible scenarios for the status of the local marine environment have been formulated,
with the primary objective of prioritizing key actions which need to be implemented pursuant to
attaining an optimistic and desireable scenario. Parameters adopted to assess the three different possible
scenarios relate to descriptors of the marine environment, agents undermining the status of the same
environment, and to research and data collection capabilities.
PARAMETER
OPTIMISTIC
INTERMEDIATE
PESSIMISTIC
SCENARIO
SCENARIO
SCENARIO
Marine Protected
An effective network of A slight increase in the Designation of MPA’s stalls,
Areas and other
local
site protection
established,
regimes
which acceding to the disjointed
MPA’s
is number of locally-designated with no new MPA’s besides
most
of protected areas, resulting in a the
existing
two
being
and designated
SPABIM network and unrepresentative extent
representing all of the
local
marine
communities
Status of protected
A
favourable A favourable conservation A general decline in the
habitats and
conservation status is status is maintained for just a extent and populations of
species
established
and few protected species and protected
maintained
for
all habitats
species
and
habitats
protected species and
habitats
Bathing water
All
sites
quality
conform
monitored Maintenance of the status quo A significant increase in the
with – i.e. a small number of number of monitored sites
Barcelona Convention monitored
and
Bathing
Quality
Water comply
sites
with
do
guidelines relevant legislation
Directive within relevant legislation
11
not which fail guidelines within
guidelines
and
standards
Seawater physico-
All sites monitored not Maintenance of the status quo A general augmentation in
chemical
registering
properties
threshold
above- – i.e. just a few so-called the
levels
heavy
metal
and
for ‘hotspots’ exhibit alarmingly pathogenic concentrations at
sewage pollution and high levels of pathogenic most or all of the monitored
heavy metal pollution microbes and heavy metals, sites
indicators as a result of such as those in close vicinity
all
three
sewage- to open landfills or to sewage
treatment
plants outlets
coming on stream
Hydrocarbon
The local expansion in A few local sites reporting A general increase in the
pollution
tank cleaning facilities, sporadic
resulting
in
oil
pollution incidence of tarry residues
a incidences
washing up shores
significant decline in
oil
and
hydrocarbon
pollution
Thermal pollution
The cessation of all Discharge of warm water The increase in the volume
local
discharges
of restricted to current facilities of
warm water, as a result (e.g. Delimara power station)
of
the
warm
water
being
discharged into the sea
temporary
hoarding of such water
on
land
prior
to
discharge
Incidence of
The
significant Maintenance of the status quo A general degradation in
eutrophication and
reduction
in
enhanced turbidity
occurrence of these two ‘hotspots’
indicators,
monitored
with
the – i.e. just a few so-called these two parameters for
all witnessing
regularly most monitored sites around
eutrophication, the islands
sites such as coastal inlets and
exhibiting good water harbours/ports
quality
12
Promulgation of
A stabilization in the The maintenance of the status A significant increase in the
alien species
introduction
of
indigenous
non- quo
The
mitigation
coastal
terms
of
non- numbers
of
introduced
marine indigenous marine species marine species, including
species to our waters
Coastal erosion
in
recorded locally
invasive ones
of The stabilization of the rate An exacerbation of coastal
erosion
at of coastal erosion
erosion levels, resulting in
affected sites and the
enhanced
adoption of corrective
desertification at the affected
measures
sites
decline
in
stabilization
in
of
Incidence of
A
anomalous
incidence
weather
phenomena or in the
associated damage wrought
phenomena
costs associated with
to
their occurrence
communities
of
the A
rates
such occurrence of such events
the An increase in the incidence
of such events and the
coastal
biotic
Surface sea
No rise in SST’s is Recorded increase is of a An increase in 1-3 degrees
temperatures
recorded
magnitude less than 1 degree Centigrade is registered
(SST’s)
Centigrade
Rise in seawater
Rise limited to 18cm Rise limited to the 18-59cm Rise equal to or higher than
level
(i.e.
associated
with range (i.e. associated with 59cm (i.e. associated with
IPCC scenario B1)
IPCC scenarios, A1B, A1T, IPCC scenario A1, F1)
A2 and B2)
Research facilities
Establishment
of
a No
major
dedicated
marine existing
bolstering
marine
of Downscaling
of
existing
research research facilities, with the
station, endowed with facilities
consequent
decline
in
requisites such as a
forecasting
potential
and
research
characterization
vessel
and
ancillary facilities
Integrated data
All
marine-
collection
coastal-related
of
local
marine resources
and Limited
cross-entity
and Duplication of work and
data cross-sectoral cooperation in complete non-collaboration
available for end-users sharing data
from a single portal
13
by different entities
4.2 Key forcings/drivers to ensure the realization of the optimistic scenario include:
1. The deployment of operational oceanographic facilities and techniques for different applications
within the marine environment
2. The enhancement of research potential in marine fields, through, for example, a more successful
tapping of research funds
3. A bolstered cross-sectoral collaboration between various marine data compilers, including
scientists and governmental agencies. This can be achieved through the confluence of existing
various regulatory bodies (MEPA, MRA, MMA, etc) into a single administrative and regulatory
entity, encompassing all major marine stakeholders
4. An increased awareness about the dynamicity of marine systems and the vulnerability of the
marine environment to anthropogenic impacts. This can only be achieved through the
establishment of a knowledge-based society
5. The effective enforcement of existing marine environmental protection legislation
6. The establishment and maintenance of ‘good’ (or higher) environmental status for
coastal/nearshore waters
7. The establishment of an ad hoc local marine station, furnished with cutting edge facilities and
technologies
8. The establishment of an effective local network of Marine Protected Areas (MPA’s)
9. The establishment of a favourable conservation status for protected species and habitats
10. The entrenching of ‘good practice’ methodologies within marine/maritime activities, such as
regular monitoring of water quality
11. The commissioning of environmental sustainability studies prior to decision-making for largescale marine and coastal projects
12. The adoption of sustainability indicators to assess the footprint of marine/coastal activities and
projects
13. The adoption of the ecosystem-based management approach in assessing potential impacts of
planned marine activities
14. The conduction of extensive baseline marine studies for areas of coastal waters whose marine
natural assemblages/communities have not yet been characterised
14
15. The inclusion of marine and maritime affairs in the country’s priority areas identified for
excellence, within the ambit of Vision 2015
15
5. Legal obligations and the role of operational oceanography
techniques
Malta is increasingly facing a burgeoning load of European and regional marine-related legislation,
mostly already transposed into local legislation. Within the current scenario of a relative local dearth of
operational monitoring, surveillance and data-collection facilities, Malta is generally unable to respond
to such legal obligations, with the most recent case relating to the EU Commission accusing Malta,
along with a number of other member states, of failing to relay within the stipulated timeframe data
pertaining to the implementation of the Biodiversity Action Plan within the ambit the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) to which Malta is party.
Operational oceanography can contribute towards the respect of such legal commitments through:
-
Surveillance services,
-
Monitoring of water parameters and
-
Integration of data from different sources and scope,
specifically towards the adherence to the following marine environmental legislation and relevant
protocols (acronyms adopted for each piece of legislation are included in parenthesis):
16
Surveillance services
Monitoring of water parameters
Integration of data from different providers
Convention on the
Water Framework Directive (WFD)
Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European
Conservation of European
Community (INSPIRE)
Wildlife and Natural
Habitats (Berne
Convention)
Directive on the
Marine Strategy Framework Directive
Conservation of Natural
(MSFD)
habitats and of wild fauna
and flora (Habitats
Directive)
Agreement for the
Convention on Wetlands of International
Conservation of Cetaceans
Importance
in the Mediterranean,
Habitat (RAMSAR)
especially
as
Waterfowl
Black Sea and their
Contiguous Zone
(ACCOBAMS)
UN Convention on the Law IMO ballast water convention
of the Sea (UNCLOS)
17
Bathing Water Quality Directive
UN Framework Convention on Climate
Change (FCCC)
Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the
Coastal Region of the Mediterranean (formerly, the Barcelona
Convention) and supporting protocols (including the Protocol on
Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean
– SPA/BD).
Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of
Wastes at Sea and other Matter (London Convention)
18
The relevance of operational oceanography towards attaining Malta’s legal obligations is
discussed within the ambit of selected directives.
The WFD specifies three types of monitoring.
(1) Long-term surveillance monitoring provides a broad understanding of the health
of water bodies and tracks slow changes in trends such as those resulting from
climate change.
(2) Operational monitoring focuses on water bodies which do not meet good status
and on the main pressures they face – pollution where this is the main problem,
water flow where extraction creates risks. Operational monitoring thus tracks the
effectiveness of investments and other measures taken to improve the status of
water bodies.
(3) Member States also undertake investigative monitoring when they need further
information about surface water bodies that cannot be obtained via operational
monitoring, including information on accidents.
In addition to these three main types of monitoring, Member States need to carry out
more detailed analysis in areas that are protected for drinking water or for natural habitats
and species.
According to the WFD, monitoring information is needed for the following reasons:
Classification of status of all water bodies or groups of water bodies.
To support risk assessment procedures.
Design of future monitoring programmes.
Assessment of long-term changes whose causes are both natural and
anthropogenic.
Assessment of compliance with standards and objectives.
Estimation of pollution load transfers across international boundaries or into seas.
Assessing the efficacy of measures applied to water bodies designated as at risk.
19
Ascertaining formerly unidentified reasons for failure to achieve environmental
objectives.
Assessing the impact of accidental pollution.
Use in inter-calibration exercises.
Article 21 of the MSFD states that:
‘It is crucial for the achievement of the objectives of this Directive to ensure the
integration of conservation objectives, management measures and monitoring and
assessment activities set up for spatial protection measures such as special areas of
conservation, special protection areas or marine protected areas.’,
whilst article 26 of the same directive states that:
‘The next step towards achieving good environmental status should be the establishment
of environmental targets and monitoring programmes for ongoing assessment, enabling
the state of the marine waters concerned to be evaluated on a regular basis.’
whereas Article 48 states that:
‘The Commission should also be empowered to lay down criteria and methodological
standards to be used by the Member States and to adopt specifications and standardized
methods for monitoring and assessment.’
Annex I of the Habitats Directive designates natural habitat types of community interest
whose conservation requires the designation of Special Areas of Conservation (SAC’s).
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) and other international bodies have been
called upon to take action to address the transfer of harmful organisms by ships
(globallast.imo.org/). The IMO ballast water convention was adopted in February 2004,
20
but will only come into force 12 months after the signing by 30% of all IMO states,
representing 35% of global ship gross tonnage.
Guidelines and commitments included within such a convention include the fact that
ships are required to have on board and implement a Ballast Water Management Plan
approved by the Administration (Regulation B-1). The Ballast Water Management Plan is
specific to each ship and includes a detailed description of the actions to be taken to
implement the Ballast Water Management requirements and supplemental Ballast Water
Management practices.
Ships must have a Ballast Water Record Book (Regulation B-2) to record when ballast
water is taken on board; circulated or treated for Ballast Water Management purposes;
and discharged into the sea. It should also record when Ballast Water is discharged to a
reception facility and accidental or other exceptional discharges of Ballast Water
The specific requirements for ballast water management are contained in regulation B-3
Ballast Water Management for Ships:

Ships constructed before 2009 with a ballast water capacity of between 1500 and
5000 cubic metres must conduct ballast water management that at least meets the
ballast water exchange standards or the ballast water performance standards until
2014, after which time it shall at least meet the ballast water performance
standard.

Ships constructed before 2009 with a ballast water capacity of less than 1500 or
greater than 5000 cubic metres must conduct ballast water management that at
least meets the ballast water exchange standards or the ballast water performance
standards until 2016, after which time it shall at least meet the ballast water
performance standard.

Ships constructed in or after 2009 with a ballast water capacity of less than 5000
cubic metres must conduct ballast water management that at least meets the
ballast water performance standard.
21

Ships constructed in or after 2009 but before 2012, with a ballast water capacity
of 5000 cubic metres or more shall conduct ballast water management that at least
meets the standard described in regulation D-1 or D-2 until 2016 and at least the
ballast water performance standard after 2016.

Ships constructed in or after 2012, with a ballast water capacity of 5000 cubic
metres or more shall conduct ballast water management that at least meets the
ballast water performance standard.
Other methods of ballast water management may also be accepted as alternatives to the
ballast water exchange standard and ballast water performance standard, provided that
such methods ensure at least the same level of protection to the environment, human
health, property or resources, and are approved in principle by IMO's Marine
Environment Protection Committee (MEPC).
Under Regulation B-4 Ballast Water Exchange, all ships using ballast water exchange
should:

whenever possible, conduct ballast water exchange at least 200 nautical miles
from the nearest land and in water at least 200 metres in depth, taking into
account Guidelines developed by IMO;

in cases where the ship is unable to conduct ballast water exchange as above, this
should be as far from the nearest land as possible, and in all cases at least 50
nautical miles from the nearest land and in water at least 200 metres in depth
The INSPIRE initiative intends to trigger the creation of a European spatial information
infrastructure that delivers to the users integrated spatial information services. These
services should allow the users to identify and access spatial or geographical information
from a wide range of sources, from the local level to the global level, in an inter-operable
way for a variety of uses. The target users of INSPIRE include policy-makers, planners
and managers at European, national and local level and the citizens and their
organisations. Possible services are the visualisation of information layers, overlay of
information from different sources, spatial and temporal analysis, etc.
22
6. Possible benefits of an operational oceanography
framework to the local marine environment
Making Ecosystem-Based Management of coastal resources possible
Monitoring of phytoplankton populations
Early-warning system for Harmful Algae Blooms
Monitoring the introduction of alien marine species
Applications to Fisheries sectors
Aquaculture applications
Conventional energy production
Nearshore/Offshore renewable energy facilities
Integrated Coastal Zone Management applications
Monitoring coastal erosion
Modelling of pollutant spills and contingency planning
Climate change considerations
Forecasting and nowcasting of natural hazards
General surveillance
Navigational applications
Research and development
6.1 Making EBM (Ecosystem-Based Management) of coastal resources possible
The Ecological Society of America (Christenson et al. 1996) defines EBM as:
‘Ecosystem management is management driven by explicit goals, executed by policies,
protocols, and practices, and made adaptable by monitoring and research based on our
best understanding of the ecological interactions and processes necessary to sustain
ecosystem composition, structure, and function. Ecosystem management includes
sustainability, goals, sound ecological models and understanding, complexity and
connectedness, the dynamic character of ecosystems, context and scale, humans as
ecosystem components, adaptability, and accountability.’
23
Successful prevention, control and mitigation of the effects of human activities, natural
hazards and climate change depend on the capacity to anticipate changes with sufficient
lead-time to make informed decisions with desired outcomes (Clark et al., 2001)7.
Implementing ecosystem-based strategies requires the capability to engage in adaptive
management, a decision-making process that depends on routine and rapid detection of
changes in the condition or state of coastal ecosystems and routine and timely predictions
of the effects of such changes on the phenomena of interest.
Ecosystem management includes the following elements (after Christenson et al. 1996)8:
1) Sustainability. Ecosystem management does not focus primarily on "deliverables" but
rather regards intergenerational sustainability as a precondition.
2) Goals. Ecosystem management establishes measurable goals that specify future
processes and outcomes necessary for sustainability.
3) Sound ecological models and understanding. Ecosystem management relies on
research performed at all levels of ecological organization.
4) Complexity and connectedness. Ecosystem management recognizes that biological
diversity and structural complexity strengthen ecosystems against disturbance and supply
the genetic resources necessary to adapt to long-term change.
5) The dynamic character of ecosystems. Recognizing that change and evolution are
inherent in ecosystem sustainability, ecosystem management avoids attempts to "freeze"
ecosystems in a particular state or configuration.
6) Context and scale. Ecosystem processes operate over a wide range of spatial and
Clarke et al., (2001). Ecological forecasts: An emerging imperative. Science 293 (5530): 657 – 660.
Christensen, N.L., et al. 1996. The Report of the Ecological Society of America Committee on the
Scientific Basis for Ecosystem Management. Originally published in Ecological Applications 6(3): 665691.
7
8
24
temporal scales, and their behavior at any given location is greatly affected by
surrounding systems. Thus, there is no single appropriate scale or time frame for
management.
7) Humans as ecosystem components. Ecosystem management values the active role of
humans in achieving sustainable management goals.
8) Adaptability and accountability. Ecosystem management acknowledges that current
knowledge and paradigms of ecosystem function are provisional, incomplete and subject
to change. Management approaches must be viewed as hypotheses to be tested by
research and monitoring programs."
Effective ecosystem-based management depends on increasing the speed and accuracy of
detecting changes in the distributions of key variables and on reducing the uncertainty of
predictions that such changes will occur. This requires both improved models of
ecosystem dynamics and more rapid detection of changes in variables. The emergence of
operational oceanography and the science of ecological forecasting (Clark et al., 2001)
are important steps toward achieving these objectives.
Case-study:
The combined effects of nutrient enrichment from land-based sources (primarily nonpoint inputs
of nutrients from fertilizers) and overfishing oyster stocks have been shown to result in a massive
spring diatom bloom that fuels the development of summer anoxia in Chesapeake Bay (Malone et
al., 19969).
UNEP/MAP, through its SAP-BIO (Strategic Action Plan for the Conservation of
Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean) programme, along with FAO and the GFCM,
are promoting sustainable fisheries within the Mediterranean through the adoption of
ecosystem-based management measures.
9
Malone, T.C. Ecosystem dynamics, harmful algal blooms and operational oceanography (retrieved from
http://earthobservations.org/ on 12/12/08).
25
6.2 Monitoring of phytoplankton populations
Phytoplankton is defined as free-floating, photosynthetic producers, usually microscopic,
found in the water column of aquatic systems, and constituting the base of food chains
within such systems. Phytoplankton includes diatoms, desmids, and dinoflagellates.
Monitoring of such populations is useful for:
-
pollution control authorities = assessment of eutrophication status of water
-
food control authorities = to advice the public on matters relating to contamination of
food with algal toxins
-
research institutes
-
aquaculture operators and insurance companies = to evaluate and reduce economic
losses associated with the introduction of harmful algae
-
oil industry = for management of water quality, including particles in injection water
The Seawatch Europe Project of the European Marine environment programme
(EUROMAR) is an on-line monitoring and forecasting system of phytoplankton
populations in the North Sea. In addition, the monitoring of phytoplankton populations is
also, albeit indirectly, a tool to monitor the incidence of eutrophication with Maltese
coastal waters.
6.3 Early warning system for HAB’s
Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB’s) can be defined as events where the concentration of one
or several harmful algae reaches levels that can cause harm to other organisms in the sea,
or cause accumulation of algal toxins in marine organisms that will eventually harm other
organisms that will consume the toxic species. Fronts, eddies, buoyant plumes, multilayered flow regimes, and interactions between benthic and pelagic communities in
coastal marine and estuarine ecosystems enhance nutrient cycling and phytoplankton
productivity and may promote the growth of harmful algae (Smayda, 1989; Jumars, 1993;
Hood et al., 1999; Chapelle et al., 2000; Anderson et al., 2002).
26
The occurrence of HAB’s in the Mediterranean Sea are a widespread problem which
generate public health problems, interfere with the coastal recreational activities, whereas
they induce significant economical loses, either in aquaculture industry (1.6 million year
2003 in Olbia, Italy) or in tourist sector (Palmira, Calvià, Vulcano – Strategy,
2004)10.There is potential for the outbreak of HAB’s in Maltese nearshore waters. In fact,
Debono (2001)11 reported a high proportion of toxic and harmful phytoplankton species
from six sampling locations around the islands, with the highest abundances being
recorded in the Marsamxett and Grand Harbour sites, presumably as a result of sewage
pollution and prevailing onshore winds. The development of operational capabilities for
rapid detection and timely predictions of HAB’s is one of the main priorities of the
GOOS (Global Ocean Observing System). In addition, the Harmful Algal Blooms
Observing System (HABSOS) project was launched in 2000 in the Gulf of Mexico. The
goal of HABSOS is to create the capacity to provide an internet-based data
communications and management system for collecting, processing and disseminating
data and information in the form of (1) early HAB alerts (detecting new blooms), (2)
frequent updates of the locations of existing blooms, (3) timely forecasts of HAB
trajectories and the time and location of HAB land falls and (4) probabilities that a bloom
will occur based on environmental conditions. HABSOS is designed and implemented as
a proof of concept, user-driven project.
6.4 Monitoring of ship ballast water for detection of alien species
An important issue related to heavy shipping traffic is the introduction of alien species
from ballast water. Due to the intense sea traffic in close propinquity to the Maltese
Islands -
- the potential for the establishment and promulgation of alien species in
Maltese coastal waters, through ballast water-transfer of propagules, is extremely high. In
fact, tt is estimated that about 220,000 vessels of more than 100 tonnes cross the
10
Strategy (2004). Action plans and measures for an integrated control of Mediterranean recreational
waters in relation to Harmful Algal Blooms. Conclusions of the workshop: Management of Mediterranean
recreational waters in relation with harmful microalgal blooms in the Mediterranean Sea. Calvia, Mallorca,
2004.
Debono, S. (2001). Harmful algal blooms in Maltese coastal waters – a preliminary study. Biology
Symposium 2001 abstract booklet: 6-9.
11
27
Mediterranean annually, carrying 30% of the international sea borne trade volume, and
20% of the petroleum. With some 2000 merchant ships plying the Mediterranean at all
times, the sea is exceptionally susceptible to ship-transported bioinvasions, whether by
fouling or ballast (Bella Galil, personal communication).
An ad hoc operational oceanographic system can be developed to specifically monitor
ballast water at ports of call. In fact, in the future, countries which have implemented an
operational oceanographic system should be prepared to implement the IMO ballast water
guidelines and to prepare for the ratified IMO ballast water convention.
6.5 Applications to fisheries sectors
Advanced contemporary fisheries and management is another environmental forecasting
field which can be addressed by operational oceanography which can provide information
related to:
-
fish spawning periods
-
larval survival and metamorphosis to adults
-
fish migration to new feeding grounds
-
fish stock assessments
-
a better understanding of how changes in the current and thermohaline regimes of the
sea affect the fishery resource
-
plankton dynamics
-
collation of fishery-dependent data
-
generation of upwelling indices
-
consensus over established fishing quotas
ICES (International Commission for the Scientific Exploration of the Sea) reports a
recent deterioration in data compiled for purposes of stock assessment, with sporadic
incidents of large-scale misreporting of catches, such that the ICES is having to search for
alternative, unofficial sources of catch data for stock assessment or, worst still, is unable
to make quantitative forecasts for some fish stocks. Similar data compilation caveats have
28
been reported by the SCRS (Standing Committee for Research and Statistics) within
ICCAT (International Convention for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna), especially for
bluefin tuna, a pelagic species of great importance to the local aquaculture industry. A
rigorous and comprehensive fish stock assessment which is promised by operational
oceanography techniques would also be well positioned to achieving consensus between
stakeholders over established quotas and thus reduce conflict.
Case study
Since the big pelagics fisheries south of the Azores is dependent on a previous mesoscale activity
of the FCA (The Azores Front-Current), one can argue that long-term monitoring of FCA and
CCFCA (The Azores Counter-Current), together with its realistic modeling, is crucial for the
correct seasonal management of fisheries in the area (Alves & Simoes, 1997)12.
6.6 Aquaculture applications
In 2005, a total of eighty cages were used for aquaculture in Malta, occupying a
combined surface area of 78,773 square metres (Census of Fisheries, 2006)13, with the
total production of farmed fish in 2005 amounting to 5.1 million kilograms, yielding a
value of €48 million. The Maltese aquaculture industry currently employs 192 persons,
130 of whom working on a full-time basis and the remaining 62 on part-time. 28 are
foreign workers. Basurco & Lovatelli (2005)14 report a 14% increase in the local
aquaculture industry between 1991 and 2001, one of the highest rates of increment in the
Mediterranean Basin. In addition, the Operational Programme for the Maltese Fisheries
Industry for the period 2008-2013 affirms that the number of aquaculture facilities locally
will increase in the future and that production of farmed fish will increase to and annual
15,000 tons.
12
Alves, M. & Simoes, A. (2007). Azores current system modeling and monitoring In: Behrens, H.W.A.,
Borst, J.C., Stel, J.H., van der Meulen, J.P. & Droppert, L.J. (eds). Operational Oceanography: The
Challenge for European Cooperation. Elsevier Publishing: 736pp.
13
Census of Fisheries 2006. – Valletta: National Statistics Office, 2007 xix, 139p.
14
B. Basurco and A. Lovatelli, “The Aquaculture Situation In The Mediterranean Sea Predictions For The
Future”, 2003.
29
Growth rates and mortality at aquaculture sites depend critically on temperature profiles,
dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll concentrations (phytoplankton), and ambient flow
conditions. Both regulatory agencies and individual aquaculturists have great interest in
these data being supplied by operational services (EuroGOOS, 2005)15. Quansah et al.
(2007)16 list other potential aquaculture applications of remote sensing techniques,
including site-selection, aquaculture facility mapping, market proximity analysis and
associated roadway infrastructure, epizootic mitigation, meteorological event and flood
early warning, environmental pollution monitoring, and aquatic ecosystem impact.
6.7 Conventional energy production
Coastal power plants, including the power station at Delimara, use sea water for their
cooling system. Information from operational meteo-marine observations can be
important in the design phase to estimate the thermal impact of the power plants and the
location of the discharge and extraction points. They can also be important in the
operational phase to identify the best periods for maintenance and repair activities. They
can be used in designing the implementation of windmills in shelf areas. Another
important aspect to consider is the forecast of events which could lead to the obstruction
of extraction points by macroalgae (EuroGOOS, 2005).
6.8 Nearshore/Offshore renewable energy production
The Maltese government has committed itself to the establishment of an offshore wind
farm at Sikka l-Bajda – data relating to meteorology (wind strengths and variability) and
the characterization of the hydrodynamic regime and seabed topology, would expedite
the site-selection process for the deployment of the wind turbine foundations in such a
manner that natural hazards to the same foundations would be minimized through
reduced shearing effects, etc. as well as optimize the design. Operational meteo-marine
data available on a daily bases would moreover enable surveillance of submarine cable
15
EuroGOOS, 2005. IBI-ROOS Plan: Iberia Biscay Ireland Regional Operational Oceanographic System
2006–2010. ISBN 91-974828-3-8: 52pp.
16
Quansah et al., Remote Sensing Applications for Sustainable Aquaculture in Africa. Proceedings of the
Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, 2007. IGARSS 2007. IEEE International, Barcelona, Spain.
23-25 July 2007: 1255-1259.
30
status to mitigate against anchor-mediated and other forms of damage, and most
importantly forecasts of wind waves and marine conditions permit performance and
output from windfarms to be anticipated as well as predict fluctuations in demand (such
as during heatwaves and cold weather) and hence enable adjustments from other energy
provision to maintain supply against demand.
The potential for energy generation through the harvesting of sea current and wave
energy could also be expeditiously investigated through the long-term monitoring of
localized current and wave regimes.
6.9 ICZM applications
According to the EU Commission Communication COM (2000)547 of 27/9/2000,
« ICZM seeks over the long-term, to balance environmental, economic, social, cultural
and recreational objectives, all within the limits set by natural dynamics »
The European Parliament and of the Council of Europe issued a joined recommendation
(Recommendation 2002/413/EC of 30 May 2002) concerning the implementation of
Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Europe.
The Green Paper of the European Union on Maritime Policy accordingly recognizes that “one
of the principles of ICZM is to integrate the sea, the land and their interface areas under a
single integrated management…” and thereby underpins the importance and defines the role
of ICZM throughout the entire process chain.
The local adoption of ICZM is even more pressing and relevant, against the backdrop of a
total coastal extent of 210km (reference).
ICZM applications include:
-
monitoring of the impact of extensive runoff volumes after heavy precipitation on
indicators of coastal water quality, including turbidity
31
-
early-warning system for the incidence of eutrophication in local waters. Whilst
several scales to gauge the degree of eutrophication of coastal waters exist (e.g. the
TRIX scale), very few early signals of such a deterioration of coastal waters exist,
such as changes in taxonomic composition. The forecasting facility of operational
oceanography is far superior (in terms of timescale and confidence limits) to such
conventional techniques and information generation
-
the monitoring of the extent of coastal erosion through assessment of shoreline
position, slope and other parameters
-
spatial planning – the regular monitoring of activities over a long time-series allows
circumspect decisions on ways to reduce stakeholder conflicts to be made
6.10 Monitoring coastal erosion
According to the EEA (2005), erosion may have a multitude of impacts on the coastal
ecosystem, namely:
• destruction of soil surface layers leading to ground water pollution and reduction of
water resources;
• degradation of the dune system, leading to desertification and reduction of biological
diversity;
• destruction of dunes with adverse effects on beach dynamics and reduction of the
sedimentary resources;
• disappearance of the sandy littoral lanes, which are protecting agricultural land against
the intrusion of seawater (leading to soil and ground water salinisation).
Operational oceanography, through the monitoring of coastal topographic aspects, such
as slope and terrain type, can identify coastal areas most prone to coastal erosion,
pursuant to the regulation of deleterious human activities in such areas, besides tracking
changes in coastal contours, thus effectively providing nowcasts of the extent of coastal
erosion, which can be supplemented/verified by field measurements at a later stage. The
coastal extent most prone to coastal erosion is the NE (in view of its low-lying nature)
and NW (in view of its geological composition and aspect) parts of the island of Malta.
32
6.11 Monitoring of pollutant spills
The need for a comprehensive system which models and forecasts the spread of pollutant
spills/plumes is especially felt for oil. In fact, the major axis (90 % of the total oil traffic)
for oil traffic in the Mediterranean is from east to west (Egypt-Gibraltar), passing
between Sicily and Malta and following closely the coasts of Tunisia, Algeria and
Morocco. There are on average 60 maritime accidents in the basin each year, of which 15
involve oil and/or chemical spills. (EEA, 1999)17. 30% of all global oil traffic uses the
Mediterranean as an avenue. In addition, the Maltese Islands are in close propinquity to
an oil refinery (Gela, Sicily) and to numerous loading ports (for crude oil) in Sicily. The
capacity to model possible oil spills within local waters also spearheads contingency
planning capabilities. The Malta MEDSLIK oil spill model developed by the Physical
Oceanography Unit of the IOI-Malta Operational Centre for the local scenario has been
successfully implemented over the Malta Shelf area and immediate vicinity to the
Maltese Islands The oil spill model can be run in operational mode and has been applied
during a simulation exercise held in November 2008 in collaboration with the Malta
Maritime Authority.
The dispersion and evolution of other pollutants can be provided as part of an operational
oceanography system; these include nutrient plumes, treated/untreated sewage outflows
and effluents from aquaculture facilities.
6.12 Climate change considerations
A cardinal point of the EU’s Maritime Policy endorsed in 2007 is that marine RTD
(Research and Technological Development) is crucial to predict and mitigate, as far as
possible, the effects of climate change. In addition, one of the stated priorities of the same
policy’s Blue Book is the ‘prediction and mitigation of climate change.’
17
EEA (1999). State and pressures of the marine and coastal Mediterranean environment. Copenhagen,
Denmark: 44pp.
33
The issue of climate change and its potential impacts is especially compelling for a small
island state like Malta. In fact, the IPCC (Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change),
in its report on the possible effects of climate change on small island states (Mimura et
al., 2007)18, affirms that:
‘Small islands, whether located in the tropics or higher latitudes, have characteristics
which make them especially vulnerable to the effects of climate change, sea-level rise,
and extreme events’
In addition, the same report concludes that Malta is one of the island states which could
potentially be
‘at serious risk from inundation, flooding and physical damage associated with coastal
land loss.’
and that climate change will also have serious economic repercussions, namely on
tourism and fisheries aspects.
In addition, the IPCC report on the possible effects of climate change on coastal and lowlying areas (Nicholls et al., 2008)19 lists the following climate change impacts most likely
to affect such areas:
‘…an accelerated rise in sea level of up to 0.6 m or more by 2100; a further rise in sea
surface temperatures by up to 3°C; an intensification of tropical and extra-tropical
18
Mimura, N., L. Nurse, R.F. McLean, J. Agard, L. Briguglio, P. Lefale, R. Payet and G. Sem, 2007: Small
islands. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to
the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F.
Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK, 687-716.
19
Nicholls, R.J., P.P. Wong, V.R. Burkett, J.O. Codignotto, J.E. Hay, R.F. McLean, S. Ragoonaden and
C.D. Woodroffe, 2007: Coastal systems and low-lying areas. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation
and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden
and C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 315-356.
34
cyclones; larger extreme waves and storm surges; altered precipitation/run-off; and
ocean acidification’
Operational oceanography could bolster the existing knowledge base connected to
climate change issue in the following manners:

Monitoring and forecasting extreme events.

Developing climate change models.

Monitoring baseline values for climate change indicators, such as meteorological
parameters, heat fluxes and marine parameters (e.g. waves, sea surface
temperature, key bio-chemical parameters) and sea level
The use of data is the basis the European Environment Agency (EEA) report in 2008
which provides a comprehensive assessment of the possible impacts of climate change
on Europe through the adoption of forty different environmental indicators20.
6.13 Forecasting of natural hazards
Operational oceanography systems are an invaluable tool in the forecasting of natural
hazards, the most relevant of which for the Maltese Islands are the following:
-
seiches
-
anomalous wave heights
-
seismic and volcanic activity
-
tsunamis
Drago (1999)21 provides an extensive study of an anomalous phenomenon of sea level
fluctuations around the Maltese Islands. This phenomenon, known by local fishermen as
EEA (2008). Impacts of Europe’s changing climate - 2008 indicator-based assessment. A joint
EEA/JRC/WHO report. EEA Report 04/2008. Copenhagen, Denmark.
20
35
‘milghuba’, consists of non-tidal short-period sea level oscillations which are induced by
coastal seiches and have periods ranging from several hours to as low as a few minutes.
The phenomenon has been observed to occur all along the northern coast of the Maltese
archipelago and can be an important means for the flushing of coastal inlets. Such seiches
in the Maltese Islands are mainly of atmospheric origin (Drago, 1999). The most recent
seiche event within local coastal areas was recorded in Ghadira/Mellieha bay on the 17th
of December 2008, when a sea level rise of about one meter was temporarily observed,
resulting in the inundation of the sandy beach as far inland as the coastal road (Aldo
Drago, pers. communication).
Despite significant wave heights of up to 6.5m being reported off Malta (Drago, 1999),
for 90% of the time the significant wave heights reported for Maltese coastal waters do
not surpass 1.5m, with offshore areas to the north-west of Gozo and to the south of Malta
being the only exceptions (MMA, 2003)22.
The present form of the Mediterranean Sea is the result of continuous interaction of
complex geodynamic processes during the last 50–70 million years. Seismic activity in
the Mediterranean region is closely related to the active geodynamic processes. The
frequent seismic activity in the basin is epitomized by the fact that, since 1995, six
earthquakes of a magnitude greater than 5.9, have been recorded, resulting in over 20,000
mortalities. The Maltese Islands border an active seismic zone in the Central
Mediterranean (Vannucci et al., 2004), as shown in the figure below.
Drago, A.F., 1999. A study of the sea level variations and the ‘milghuba’ phenomenon in the Maltese
Islands. Unpublished PhD thesis. Faculty of Science, School of Ocean and Earth Science, University of
Southampton, UK: 409+xiiipp.
22
MMA, 2003. Malta significant wave height study – main report. Scott-Wilson Kirkpatrick Company Ltd:
43pp.
21
36
Seismic zones of the Mediterranean (after Vannucci et al., 2004)23.
Active volcanoes in the Mediterranean region date back 1–2 million years and are
associated with the active orogenic arcs, namely the Calabrian and the Hellenic ones.
Eruption of Mount Etna and the resulting plume of ash and smoke negatively impinges
on the atmospheric quality and visibility of the Maltese Islands as a result of prevailing
winds.
Submarine slope failures and gravity driven mass movements of various origins occur
frequently in the Mediterranean region and have generated many destructive tsunamis.
The active geotectonic processes in the Mediterranean region favour the creation of the
appropriate morphological and geological conditions, which may give rise to tsunamis.
About 200 tsunamigenic events occurred over the last 500 years (1500–1990) around the
Mediterranean (after Soloviev et al., 1997)24.
Two of the most notorious incidents of tsunamis included the one on the 30th December
2002, when a major instability occurred on the Sciara del Fuoco slope, on the western
flank of the volcanic Stromboli island The tsunami induced by the landslide spread
around the island and the surrounding Aeolian archipelago and was felt as far away as the
coast of Sicily. On the 16th October 1979, in the western Mediterranean, a large slide
23
Vannucci, G. Pondrelli,S., Argnani, A., Morelli, A., Gasperini, P. and Boschi E., 2004. An Atlas of
Mediterranean seismicity. Annals of Geophysics, 47 (1) Supplement, pp. 247–306.
24
Soloviev, S.L., Go, Ch.N., Kim, Kh.S. et al. 1997. Tsunami in the Mediterranean Sea, 2000 B.C.–1991
A.D., Moscow, National Geophysical Committee, (using data provided by O.N.Solovieva).
37
occurred in shallow water during infilling operations related to the enlargement of Nice
airport at the Var River mouth. The tsunami which followed the collapse, drowned the
coastal zone of Nice and several people were killed.
6.14 General surveillance
The provision of continuous real-time surveillance would be useful to:
-
avoid vessel entry within no-entry sections of Marine Protected Areas (MPA’s).
Although such sections are, to date, limited to just a small area within the Rdum
Majjiesa area, plans are underway for the designation of a number of other MPA’s.
-
avoid vessel entry within marine/coastal SAC’s not included in MPA’s.
-
avoid illegal fishing within Malta’s Fisheries Management Zone, which extends for
10,700 km2.
-
avoid operational oil discharges from vessels or dumping of solid and/or other wastes
-
avoid fishing activity over diving sites, including wrecks
-
avoid damage to submarine cables (e.g. Malta-Sicily Vodafone fibre-optic cable and
upcoming Melita Cable one; upcoming cable connecting Malta to the European
power grid; cable connecting nearshore wind power installations).
6.15 Navigational applications
Through the provision of reliable marine forecasts, updated bulletins can be relayed to
seafarers, in order to minimise maritime accidents and thus potential environmental
hazards, including pollutant spills.
6.16 Research and Development
The CIESM workshop held in January 2008 at La Spezia, Italy, emphasized the need for
an integrated marine observatory system in the Mediterranean. Aldo Drago, the Maltese
expert participating in the workshop provided the main contribution in the part of the
workshop monograph related to the design of the system, and is summarized as follows:
38
‘The concept of an Integrated Mediterranean Marine Observatory is structured as a
system of systems composed of satellite platforms in conjunction with measurements
taken by open sea buoys, moorings, ships, drifters, profiles and gliders, and coastal
systems consisting of arrayed meteo-marine sensors. Such a hierarchical design is
crucial to optimally monitor and observe the marine environment at appropriate scales,
as well as to target the multiple needs of users across a wide spectrum of applications.’
In addition, the proposed INSPIRE network solicits the collation and integration of
various data sets of different provenance, which necessitates the establishment of a
central, unified research entity.
Within the same spirit of data integration, the European GMES (Global Monitoring for
Environment and Security) initiative represents a concerted effort to bring data and
information providers together with users, so that they can better understand each other
and make environmental and security-related information available to the people who
need it through enhanced or new services.
39
40