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Essentials of
Understanding Psychology
9th Edition
By Robert Feldman
PowerPoints by Kimberly Foreman
Revised for 9th Ed by Cathleen Hunt
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
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Chapter 14:
Social Psychology
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Social Psychology
• Scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and
actions are affected by others
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Module 43:
Attitudes and Social Cognition
• What are attitudes, and how are they formed, maintained,
and changed?
• How do people form impressions of what others are like
and of the causes of their behavior?
• What are the biases that influence the ways in which
people view others’ behavior?
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Persuasion: Changing Attitudes
• Persuasion
– Process of changing attitudes
• Attitudes
– Evaluations of a particular person, behavior, belief, or concept
– Factors that affect whether we change attitude:
• Message source
• Characteristics of the message
• Characteristics of the target
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Persuasion: Changing Attitudes
• Routes to Persuasion
– Central route processing
• Need for cognition
– Peripheral route processing
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Persuasion: Changing Attitudes
• The Link Between Attitudes and Behavior
– Cognitive dissonance
• Occurs when a person holds two contradictory attitudes or thoughts
(cognitions)
• Leon Festinger (1959) experiment
– Boring vs. interesting task
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Social Cognition:
Understanding Others
• Understanding What Others Are Like
– Social cognition
• The way people understand and make sense of others and themselves
• Schemas
– Sets of cognitions about people and social experiences
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Social Cognition:
Understanding Others
• Impression Formation
– Process by which an individual organizes information about
another person to form an overall impression of that person
• Central traits
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Social Cognition:
Understanding Others
• Attribution Process: Understanding the Causes of
Behavior
– Attribution Theory
• Seeks to explain how we decide, on the basis of samples of an
individual’s behavior, what the specific causes of that person’s behavior
are
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Determining the Cause of Behavior
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Social Cognition:
Understanding Others
• Attribution Process: Understanding the Causes of
Behavior
– Situational Causes
• Those brought about by something in the environment
– Dispositional Causes
• Prompted by the person’s disposition
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Social Cognition:
Understanding Others
• Attribution Biases: To Err Is Human
– Halo effect
• Phenomenon in which an initial understanding that a person has positive
traits is used to infer other uniformly positive characteristics
– Assumed-similarity bias
• Thinking of people as being similar to oneself even when meeting them
for the first time
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Social Cognition:
Understanding Others
• Attribution Biases: To Err Is Human
– Self-serving bias
• Tendency to attribute success to personal factors and attribute failure to
factors outside oneself
– Fundamental attribution error
• Tendency to exaggerate the importance of personality characteristics in
producing others’ behavior, minimizing the influence of the environment
• Behavioral economics
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Attribution Biases in a Cultural
Context
• The culture in which we are raised clearly plays a role in
the way we attribute others
– Collectivistic orientation
• A worldview that promotes interdependence
– Individualistic orientation
• A worldview that emphasizes personal identity and the uniqueness of the
individual
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MODULE 44:
Social Influence and Groups
• What are the major sources and tactics of social
influence?
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MODULE 44:
Social Influence and Groups
• Social Influence
– Process by which the actions of an individual or group affect
the behavior of others
• Groups
– Consist of two or more people who:
• Interact with one another
• Perceive themselves as part of a group
• Are interdependent
– Develop and hold “norms”
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Conformity:
Following What Others Do
• Change in behavior or attitudes brought about by a desire
to follow the beliefs or standards of other people
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Conformity:
Following What Others Do
• Solomon Asch (1951) Study
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Conformity:
Following What Others Do
• Conformity Conclusions
– Characteristics of the group
• Status
– Situation in which the individual is responding
– Kind of task
– Unanimity of the group
• Social supporter
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Conformity:
Following What Others Do
• Groupthink
– Type of thinking in which group members share such a strong
motivation to achieve consensus that they lose the ability to
critically evaluate alternative points of view
• Entrapment
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Conformity:
Following What Others Do
• Conformity to Social Roles
– Behaviors that are associated with people in a given position
– Philip Zimbardo's Prison Study (1973)
• Guards vs. prisoners
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Compliance:
Submitting to Direct Social Pressure
• Type of behavior that occurs in response to direct social
pressure
– Attempts to gain compliance:
•
•
•
•
Foot-in-the-door technique
Door-in-the-face technique
That’s-not-all technique
Not-so-free sample
– Norm of reciprocity
• Industrial/Organizational Psychology
– Consider worker motivation, satisfaction, safety, and
productivity
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Obedience:
Following Direct Orders
• Change in behavior in response to the commands of others
– Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Study -1960s
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Figure 2 of Module 44
MODULE 45:
Prejudice and Discrimination
• How do stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination differ?
• How can we reduce prejudice and discrimination?
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MODULE 45:
Prejudice and Discrimination
• Stereotype
– Set of generalized beliefs and expectations about a specific group and
its members
• Prejudice
– A negative (or positive) evaluation of a group and its members
• Discrimination
– Behavior directed toward individuals on the basis of their
membership in a particular group
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The Foundations of Prejudice
• Observational Learning Approaches
• Mass Media
• Social Identity Theory
– Ethnocentric
• Viewing the world from their own perspective and judging others in
terms of their group membership
– “ingroups” and “outgroups”
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The Foundations of Prejudice
• Social Neuroscience
– Seeks to identify the neural basis of social behavior
– Amygdala
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Measuring Prejudice and Discrimination:
The Implicit Personality Test
• Implicit Association Test
– Ingenious measure of prejudice that permits a more accurate
assessment of people’s discrimination between members of
different groups
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Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination
• Strategies:
– Increase contact between the target of stereotyping and holder
of the stereotype
– Make values and norms against prejudice more conspicuous
– Provide information about the targets of stereotyping
– Reduce stereotype threat
• Stereotype vulnerability
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MODULE 46:
Positive & Negative Social Behavior
• Why are we attracted to certain people, and what
progression do social relationships follow?
• What factors underlie aggression and prosocial behavior?
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Liking and Loving: Interpersonal Attraction
and the Development of Relationships
• Interpersonal Attraction
– Addresses the factors that lead to positive feelings for others
• How Do I Like Thee? Let Me Count the Ways
– Factors:
• Proximity
• Mere exposure
• Similarity
– Reciprocity-of-liking effect
• Physical attractiveness
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Liking and Loving: Interpersonal Attraction
and the Development of Relationships
• How Do I Love Thee? Let Me Count the Ways
– Passionate (romantic) love
• Represents a state of intense absorption in someone
– Companionate love
• Strong affection we have for those with whom our lives are deeply
involved
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Robert Sternberg’s
Three Components of Love
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Aggression and Prosocial Behavior:
Hurting and Helping Others
• Hurting Others: Aggression
– Aggression
• Intentional injury of or harm to another person
• Instinct Approaches
– Aggression as a Release
– Catharsis
• Frustration-Aggression Approaches
– Aggression as a Reaction to Frustration
– The reaction to the blocking of goals
• Observational Learning Approaches
– Learning to Hurt Others
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Aggression and Prosocial Behavior:
Hurting and Helping Others
• Helping Others: The Brighter Side of Human Nature
– Prosocial behavior
• Diffusion of responsibility
– Tendency for people to feel that responsibility for acting is shared
among those present
– Classic Case of Kitty Genovese
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Aggression and Prosocial Behavior:
Hurting and Helping Others
• Four basic steps in the helping process:
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–
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Noticing a person, event, or situation that may require help
Interpreting the event as one that requires help
Assuming responsibility for helping
Deciding on and implementing the form of helping
• Rewards-costs approach
• Altruism
– Helping behavior that requires self-sacrifice
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Dealing Effectively with Anger
• Strategies:
– Look again at the anger-provoking situation from the
perspective of others
– Minimize the importance of the situation
– Fantasize about getting even – but do not act on it
– Relax
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