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Essentials of Understanding Psychology 9th Edition By Robert Feldman PowerPoints by Kimberly Foreman Revised for 9th Ed by Cathleen Hunt Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 1 Chapter 14: Social Psychology 2 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Social Psychology • Scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others 3 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Module 43: Attitudes and Social Cognition • What are attitudes, and how are they formed, maintained, and changed? • How do people form impressions of what others are like and of the causes of their behavior? • What are the biases that influence the ways in which people view others’ behavior? 4 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Persuasion: Changing Attitudes • Persuasion – Process of changing attitudes • Attitudes – Evaluations of a particular person, behavior, belief, or concept – Factors that affect whether we change attitude: • Message source • Characteristics of the message • Characteristics of the target 5 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Persuasion: Changing Attitudes • Routes to Persuasion – Central route processing • Need for cognition – Peripheral route processing 6 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Persuasion: Changing Attitudes • The Link Between Attitudes and Behavior – Cognitive dissonance • Occurs when a person holds two contradictory attitudes or thoughts (cognitions) • Leon Festinger (1959) experiment – Boring vs. interesting task 7 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Social Cognition: Understanding Others • Understanding What Others Are Like – Social cognition • The way people understand and make sense of others and themselves • Schemas – Sets of cognitions about people and social experiences 8 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Social Cognition: Understanding Others • Impression Formation – Process by which an individual organizes information about another person to form an overall impression of that person • Central traits 9 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Social Cognition: Understanding Others • Attribution Process: Understanding the Causes of Behavior – Attribution Theory • Seeks to explain how we decide, on the basis of samples of an individual’s behavior, what the specific causes of that person’s behavior are 10 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Determining the Cause of Behavior 11 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Social Cognition: Understanding Others • Attribution Process: Understanding the Causes of Behavior – Situational Causes • Those brought about by something in the environment – Dispositional Causes • Prompted by the person’s disposition 12 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Social Cognition: Understanding Others • Attribution Biases: To Err Is Human – Halo effect • Phenomenon in which an initial understanding that a person has positive traits is used to infer other uniformly positive characteristics – Assumed-similarity bias • Thinking of people as being similar to oneself even when meeting them for the first time 13 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Social Cognition: Understanding Others • Attribution Biases: To Err Is Human – Self-serving bias • Tendency to attribute success to personal factors and attribute failure to factors outside oneself – Fundamental attribution error • Tendency to exaggerate the importance of personality characteristics in producing others’ behavior, minimizing the influence of the environment • Behavioral economics 14 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Attribution Biases in a Cultural Context • The culture in which we are raised clearly plays a role in the way we attribute others – Collectivistic orientation • A worldview that promotes interdependence – Individualistic orientation • A worldview that emphasizes personal identity and the uniqueness of the individual 15 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 MODULE 44: Social Influence and Groups • What are the major sources and tactics of social influence? 16 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 MODULE 44: Social Influence and Groups • Social Influence – Process by which the actions of an individual or group affect the behavior of others • Groups – Consist of two or more people who: • Interact with one another • Perceive themselves as part of a group • Are interdependent – Develop and hold “norms” 17 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Conformity: Following What Others Do • Change in behavior or attitudes brought about by a desire to follow the beliefs or standards of other people 18 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Conformity: Following What Others Do • Solomon Asch (1951) Study 19 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Conformity: Following What Others Do • Conformity Conclusions – Characteristics of the group • Status – Situation in which the individual is responding – Kind of task – Unanimity of the group • Social supporter 20 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Conformity: Following What Others Do • Groupthink – Type of thinking in which group members share such a strong motivation to achieve consensus that they lose the ability to critically evaluate alternative points of view • Entrapment 21 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Conformity: Following What Others Do • Conformity to Social Roles – Behaviors that are associated with people in a given position – Philip Zimbardo's Prison Study (1973) • Guards vs. prisoners 22 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Compliance: Submitting to Direct Social Pressure • Type of behavior that occurs in response to direct social pressure – Attempts to gain compliance: • • • • Foot-in-the-door technique Door-in-the-face technique That’s-not-all technique Not-so-free sample – Norm of reciprocity • Industrial/Organizational Psychology – Consider worker motivation, satisfaction, safety, and productivity Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 23 Obedience: Following Direct Orders • Change in behavior in response to the commands of others – Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Study -1960s 24 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Figure 2 of Module 44 MODULE 45: Prejudice and Discrimination • How do stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination differ? • How can we reduce prejudice and discrimination? 25 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 MODULE 45: Prejudice and Discrimination • Stereotype – Set of generalized beliefs and expectations about a specific group and its members • Prejudice – A negative (or positive) evaluation of a group and its members • Discrimination – Behavior directed toward individuals on the basis of their membership in a particular group 26 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 The Foundations of Prejudice • Observational Learning Approaches • Mass Media • Social Identity Theory – Ethnocentric • Viewing the world from their own perspective and judging others in terms of their group membership – “ingroups” and “outgroups” 27 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 The Foundations of Prejudice • Social Neuroscience – Seeks to identify the neural basis of social behavior – Amygdala 28 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Measuring Prejudice and Discrimination: The Implicit Personality Test • Implicit Association Test – Ingenious measure of prejudice that permits a more accurate assessment of people’s discrimination between members of different groups 29 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination • Strategies: – Increase contact between the target of stereotyping and holder of the stereotype – Make values and norms against prejudice more conspicuous – Provide information about the targets of stereotyping – Reduce stereotype threat • Stereotype vulnerability 30 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 MODULE 46: Positive & Negative Social Behavior • Why are we attracted to certain people, and what progression do social relationships follow? • What factors underlie aggression and prosocial behavior? 31 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Liking and Loving: Interpersonal Attraction and the Development of Relationships • Interpersonal Attraction – Addresses the factors that lead to positive feelings for others • How Do I Like Thee? Let Me Count the Ways – Factors: • Proximity • Mere exposure • Similarity – Reciprocity-of-liking effect • Physical attractiveness 32 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Liking and Loving: Interpersonal Attraction and the Development of Relationships • How Do I Love Thee? Let Me Count the Ways – Passionate (romantic) love • Represents a state of intense absorption in someone – Companionate love • Strong affection we have for those with whom our lives are deeply involved 33 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Robert Sternberg’s Three Components of Love 34 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Aggression and Prosocial Behavior: Hurting and Helping Others • Hurting Others: Aggression – Aggression • Intentional injury of or harm to another person • Instinct Approaches – Aggression as a Release – Catharsis • Frustration-Aggression Approaches – Aggression as a Reaction to Frustration – The reaction to the blocking of goals • Observational Learning Approaches – Learning to Hurt Others Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 35 Aggression and Prosocial Behavior: Hurting and Helping Others • Helping Others: The Brighter Side of Human Nature – Prosocial behavior • Diffusion of responsibility – Tendency for people to feel that responsibility for acting is shared among those present – Classic Case of Kitty Genovese 36 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Aggression and Prosocial Behavior: Hurting and Helping Others • Four basic steps in the helping process: – – – – Noticing a person, event, or situation that may require help Interpreting the event as one that requires help Assuming responsibility for helping Deciding on and implementing the form of helping • Rewards-costs approach • Altruism – Helping behavior that requires self-sacrifice 37 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Dealing Effectively with Anger • Strategies: – Look again at the anger-provoking situation from the perspective of others – Minimize the importance of the situation – Fantasize about getting even – but do not act on it – Relax 38 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011