Download 1 | Page Glossary: Atom: Molecule: Compound: Atomic number

Glossary: Atom: Molecule: Compound: Atomic number:
Atomic weight:
Molecular weight:
Ion:
Electrolyte:
pH:
Acid: Alkali: Molar concentration Mole Buffer Intracellular fluid Extracellular fluid Differentiation: Stem cell Haematopoiesis: Meiosis: Haemostasis unit of matter that makes up a chemical element the combination of two or more atoms of the SAME element, e.g. 02 the combination of two or more atoms of more than one element, e.g. H20. number of protons in the nucleus of an atom number of protons + number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. the sum of the atomic weights of the molecule’s atoms. a charged atom, either a cation (positive) or an anion (negative) soluble inorganic molecules whose ions will conduct an electrical current in solution the [H+], is a measure of acidity or alkalinity. a proton donor, substance below pH 7 a proton acceptor, substance above pH 7 concentration of a solute, expressed in moles per litre. (in grams) quantity of equal to that elements atomic weight A substance that minimizes change in the acidity of a solution when an acid or base is added to the solution fluid within cells o Interstitial fluid: fluid surrounding most tissues o Intra-­‐vascular fluid: blood plasma Fluid outside cells is the process whereby some genes in cells switch off, limiting the cell’s functional abilities, so that the cell can become more specialised. An undifferentiated cell of a multicellular organism that is capable of giving rise to indefinitely more cells of the same type, and from which certain other kinds of cell arise by differentiation the formation and development of red blood cells A type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each with half the chromosome number of the parent cell the control of bleeding (blood clotting) Spermatogenesis: the process of sperm cell formation. the inability to conceive after 12 months of unprotected sexual intercourse. Infertility Hypersensitivity: excessive immune response to seemingly harmless antigens such as pollen, dust or Autoimmune disease Coronary circulation Electrocardiogram (ECG) Ventilation: Respiration Partial pressure: 1|Page
to an animal, due to over-­‐activity in one part of our immune defence, severity ranges from mild allergy to severe systemic reactions leading to anaphylactic shock. is a failure of self-­‐recognition, thus the body begins fighting itself by attacking its own antigens. circulation of blood in the blood vessels of the heart muscle (myocardium) that deliver, oxygen-­‐rich blood to the heart itself, so it can function. the recording of the electrical signals of the heart through an electrocardiograph. movement of air into and out of lungs. the cellular exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the capillaries and alveoli. is the pressure contributed by a single gas in a mixture of gases. Hyperventilation: Metabolism Metabolic rate: Anabolic reactions: Catabolic reactions Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) Kidney failure Abnormally fast or deep respiration, which results in the loss of carbon dioxide from the blood, thereby causing a fall in blood pressure, tingling of the extremities, and sometimes fainting. The sum of chemical and physical process, consisting of anabolism and catabolism, by which cells produce the substances and energy needed to sustain life. The overall speed at which an organism carries out its metabolic processes. building up of substances from simple to complex, reactions require energy input. decomposition of complex substance to simpler substances, these reactions release energy. a measure of how much blood the kidneys are filtering per minute. Used to measure how well the kidneys are working. describes a medical condition in which the kidneys fail to adequately filter toxins and waste products from the blood. Word prefixes Auto-­‐ self Brachy-­‐ short Brady-­‐ slow Dys-­‐ difficult, painful, abnormal Em-­‐, en-­‐ in, into, inside Endo-­‐ within, inside Suffixes -­‐ase enzyme -­‐cyst bladder, sac -­‐cyte cell, cellular -­‐emia blood Wood roots Adreno-­‐ gland, glandular Adipo-­‐ fat Angio-­‐ blood vessel Fibro-­‐ connective tissue -­‐gram record information -­‐graph instrument for recording Ento-­‐ within, inner Epi-­‐ on, above Erythro-­‐ red Hetero-­‐ other, unlike Homeo-­‐ same, like Hyper-­‐ above, increased, over, excessive Hypo-­‐ below, under, decreased Infra-­‐ beneath -­‐graphy the process of recording -­‐itis inflammation of -­‐ium membrane -­‐meter measure -­‐metry process of measuring -­‐oma tumour Gluco-­‐, glycol-­‐ sugar, sweet Haemo-­‐, hemato-­‐, hem-­‐, hemo-­‐ blood Histo-­‐ tissue Karyo-­‐ nucleus, nut Nephr-­‐ nephron-­‐, kidney Oste-­‐, osteo-­‐ bone Path-­‐, patho-­‐ disease, suffering Phag-­‐, phago-­‐ eating, consuming, swallowing Pulmon-­‐, pulmono-­‐ lung Inter-­‐ between, among Intra, intro-­‐ into, within, during Leuk-­‐ white Macro-­‐ large, long Micro-­‐ small Poly-­‐ many, much Tachy-­‐ fast 2|Page
-­‐osis disease, condition of -­‐ostomy to make a mouth, opening -­‐otomy incision, surgical cutting -­‐pathy disease, suffering Pyro-­‐ fever, heat -­‐phagia, -­‐page eating consuming, swallowing -­‐pnea breathing -­‐poiesis formation -­‐sepsis poisoning, infection -­‐stasis stoppage Thrombo-­‐ blood clot Sacchar-­‐ sugar Thermo-­‐ heat Trach-­‐ trachea Vaso-­‐ vessel Ven-­‐ vein Viser-­‐ organ Week 2: Molecules of Life v Define the terms: atomic number, atomic weight, molecular weight, ion, electrolyte, pH, acid, alkali Atom: unit of matter that makes up a chemical element Molecule: the combination of two or more atoms of the SAME element, e.g. 02 Compound: the combination of two or more atoms of more than one element, e.g. H20. Atomic number: number of protons in the nucleus of an atom • Every element has its own atomic number, e.g. Atomic weight: number of protons + number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. Molecular weight: the sum of the atomic weights of the molecule’s atoms. • E.g. H20 (H=1, O=16) = 1+1+16 = 18 amu Ion: a charged atom, either a cation (positive) or an anion (negative) • Cations occur when atoms lose electrons, e.g. Na+, Mg2+, K+, Ca2+ • Anions occur when atoms gain electrons, e.g. Cl-­‐, SO42-­‐, HCO32-­‐, CO32-­‐ • Cations and anions are electrically attracted through ionic bonding (metal and non-­‐
metal) Electrolyte: soluble inorganic molecules whose ions will conduct an electrical current in solution. • Important electrolytes in the body: NaCl, KCl, CaPO4, NaHCO3 • Correct concentration must be maintained: high [K+] = weak irregular heartbeat, low [K+] = general muscular paralysis. pH: the [H+], is a measure of acidity or alkalinity. • pH > 7 = alkaline, more OH+ than H+ • pH = 7 = neutral, equal number of OH+ and H+ ions • pH < 7 = acidic, more H+ than OH+ • 1 pH unit = 10-­‐fold change in [H+] § pH 5 contains 10x more H+ than pH 6 • Normal pH of blood = 7.35-­‐7.45 o pH <7.35 = acidosis, CNS & cardiac function deteriorate, pH<7 =coma o pH >7.45 = alkalosis, uncontrollable skeletal muscle contractions, leads to coma acid: a proton donor, substance below pH 7 akali: a proton acceptor, substance above pH 7 v Describe the structure of an atom Particle Mass Electric charge Location Electron ~0 Negative (-­‐1) Electron shell Neutron 1 unit Neutral (0) Nucleus Proton 1 unit Positive (+1) Nucleus 3|Page
v Understand the difference between ionic and covalent bonds Ø Atoms ‘like’ to be stable = full outer shell, they achieve this through bonding. • Group 8 = most stable due to full outer shell (inert atoms), e.g. He, Ne, Ar • Group 1 = need to lose 1e-­‐ • Group 7 = need to gain 1e-­‐ • Group 4 = need to either gain or lose 4e-­‐, e.g. [C]4-­‐ or [C]4+ Covalent bonding Ionic bonding Sharing of electrons between two Transfer of electrons between a non-­‐metal and a non-­‐metals metal (oppositely charged atoms) Equal sharing of electrons = nonpolar Unequal sharing of electron =polar Na+ gives away 1e-­‐ and Cl-­‐ receive e-­‐ and they bond to form NaCl = stable and neutral v Outline the concept of molar concentration Molar concentration: the concentration of a solute, expressed in moles per litre. Mole: (in grams) quantity of equal to that elements atomic weight Calculation: Measuring quantities: Measuring concentrations: E.g. 5g of oxygen E.g. m= 0.3125g in 4L m = 5/16 = 0.3125g M= 0.3125/4 = 0.078125molL-­‐1 v Explain the importance of buffers in regulation of pH of body fluids and tissues Buffers: substances that minimizes change in the acidity of a solution when an acid or base is added to the solution. Ø Buffers ensure pH stay within a range the body can function in, if there were no buffers, pH would change dramatically and enzymes would denature because metabolic reactions to slow to a speed the body can’t survive at. Ø Example: bicarbonate buffer system • Increased pH levels would force equilibrium to the left o Some excess H+ ions associate with the bicarbonate ions o Converted to carbonic acid, then disassociates into CO2 and H2O o CO2 then removed with increased ventilation. (VISE VERSA) 4|Page
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Reversible reaction (equilibrium) v Describe in simple terms the chemical nature of sugars, proteins, lipids, nucleotides and enzymes v List the important roles that sugars, proteins, lipids, nucleotides and enzymes play in the human body Ø Organic compounds (substances that contain covalently-­‐bonded carbon and hydrogen and often other elements, e.g. lipids, proteins. Ø The main organic compounds in the body include: Carbohydrates - any of a large group of organic compounds, including sugars, such as mono, di-­‐ and poly-­‐saccharides, e.g. cellulose, glycogen, and starch - provide fuel for energy - Sugars = chief source of energy - Types of sugars include: • Monosaccharides: simple sugars that cannot be broken down further. E.g. glucose • Disaccharides: 2 monosaccharide molecules combined. E.g. sucrose (glucose + fructose) • Polysaccharides: a chain of monosaccharides, can be straight or branched. E.g. glycogen (chain of glucose-­‐ used when energy demand is high) Proteins - Polypeptides made up of amino acids, major functional and structural components of body cells. (most abundant organic components in body) Types of proteins include: • Hormonal (act as chemical messengers, stimulate actions)-­‐ e.g. insulin • Enzymatic (catalyse metabolic reactions) – e.g. catalase, amylase • Structural (fibrous/structural proteins) e.g. collagen, keratin. • Defensive (core part of immune system)-­‐ e.g. antibodies • Storage (store minerals)-­‐ e.g. ferritin (iron) • Transport (carry vital substances to cells) e.g. haemoglobin, lipoproteins • Receptor (control entry/exit of cells, activate enzymes, stimulate endocrine glands)-­‐ e.g. • Contractile (regulate strength & speed of heart contractions) e.g. myosin, actin - Amino acids consist of: C atom, amino group, carboxyl groups, side chain Enzymes: special proteins that catalyse (speed up) chemical reactions within the body by attaching themselves. o Every enzyme is specific (size, shape, type) to every different reaction § E.g. sucrose breaks down sucrose, amylase (starch to glucose) o Remain unchanged at the end of chemical reaction
o Work best under optimal conditions (different for some enzymes). o Sometime require co-­‐factor to help in reactions. 5|Page
Lipids Nucleic acids High energy compounds (ATP/ADP) - insoluble organic fats, fatty acids and fatty esters - hydrophobic Examples: • phospholipids & cholesterol (part of cell membrane), • vitamins (growth and body maintenance) • prostaglandins (responsible for inflammation), • fats & triglycerides (energy source, insulation). - Polymers of nucleotides including DNA and RNA that code for proteins - Nucleotide: made up of a nitrogenous base + sugar group + phosphate group o Building blocks of nucleic acids and carry ATP o Also important in metabolism, cell signalling and as cofactors in enzymatic reactions. - ATP: used to store energy, powers synthesis, movement and transport - Released by breaking high energy phosphate bond forming ADP - ADP: used in energy metabolism Inorganic compounds: Water Carbon dioxide Inorganic Acids/bases Buffers and pH control Salts (ionic compounds), e.g. NaCl v Compare and contrast the processes of osmosis and diffusion Process Diffusion Osmosis Definition the movement of particles from a the diffusion of pure solvents (e.g. water) higher concentration to a lower across a semipermeable membrane (not concentration (down the permeable to solutes). concentration gradient) Similarities Passive (no energy required) [High] to [low] Differences Transport of any substance but Transport of pure solvents water Across semipermeable membrane Example Diffusion of oxygen from lungs Water moving into and out of cells to into deoxygenated blood regular salt-­‐water balance v Use your knowledge of osmosis and diffusion to describe how molecules move within and between body compartments Body compartments: • Intracellular fluids (ICF): fluid within cells • Extracellular fluids (ECF): fluid outside cells o Interstitial fluid: fluid surrounding most tissues o Intra-­‐vascular fluid: blood plasma Ø Most water in the body is found inside cells (intracellular). Ø Molecules move into and out of body compartments through diffusion Ø
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Ø Movement can be active (requires energy because against [ ] gradient) or passive (no energy because with [ ] gradient). Ø Types of diffusion: o Simple diffusion: diffusion through lipid membranes (lipid soluble substances) o Channel-­‐mediated diffusion: through membrane channels o Facilitated diffusion: specific carrier proteins transport lipid insoluble substances such as glucose and amino acids through protein by changing shape. v Apply your knowledge of chemistry, diffusion and osmosis to situations which are critical to health care Ø Blood transfusions Ø Intravenous cannulation Ø Dialysis machine filtering blood 7|Page
Week 3: Cells Ø Cells are the building blocks of plants and animals. Ø All cells come from division of pre-­‐existing cells v Describe the structure of the plasma membrane Ø Cell membrane, also called Plasma membrane Ø The cell membrane is made up of: o Lipid bilayer, containing: § Phospholipids (hydrophobic tails inward, hydrophilic heads outward). § Steroids (cholesterol) § Proteins (attached to carbohydrate chains) Ø Membrane proteins: o Give cell an immunological identity o Act as specific receptors for hormones and other chemical messengers o Some are enzymes and some are involved in transport across membrane (for lipid-­‐
insoluble substances and larger substances). Ø The membranes functions includes: o Physical isolation o Regulating exchange of ions and nutrients between the cell and its environment o Detecting stimuli in the environment before it enter cells o Structural support. v Explain the functions of the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes and cytoskeleton Appearance Structure Contains: nucleoplasm with Nucleus nucleotides, enzymes, nucleoproteins and chromatin, surrounded by double membrane (nuclear envelope) Contains: double membrane with inner membrane folds (cristae) enclosing important metabolic enzymes. Mitochondria Ribosomes consist of: protein + RNA Ribosomes § RNA template provides instructions for protein synthesis § Protein is assembled from amino acids Endoplasmic according the RNA coding. reticulum 8|Page
Function § “control centre” § Control of metabolism § Storage and processing of genetic information § Control of protein synthesis §
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“power house” Produce 95% of the ATP required for the cell “protein factories” Makes all proteins needed by the cell Synthesis of secretory products Consists of: vesicles containing powerful digestive enzymes that break down large organic molecules, organelles and bacteria. Ø 9|Page
(smooth & rough) §
Intracellular storage and transport Two types: § Rough ER: “protein packaging factory”-­‐ contains ribosomes and modifies and packages newly synthesized proteins § Smooth ER: “fat and sugar factory”-­‐ lipid and carbohydrate synthesis, detoxify some drugs. Golgi apparatus § “post office” § Processes, packages & ships Consists of: secretory products stacks of § Also stores and alters flattened secretory products and membranes lysosomal enzymes (cisternae) § Products released by containing exocytosis chambers. Lysosomes §
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“waste disposal and cleaner” Intracellular removal of damaged organelles and pathogens Provides isolated environment for potentially dangerous reactions.