Download FALLEN VESTALS

FALLEN VESTALS
AN EXPLORATION INTO VIRGINITY, CRIMEN
INCESTUM, AND PUNISHMENT
Kristen Rosauer
Dr. Crawford
Humanities 269H
Introduction
“La Vestale incest n’elait plus tout a fait unevestale.”
“The Vestal Virgin who became unchaste was by no means a Vestal Virgin.”1
The term “Vestal Virgin” is virtually synonymous with what it meant to be a citizen of
Rome. Vestals were at the heart of the Roman state religion, and the only major female Roman
priesthood. They were inseparable from Rome’s view of itself and the concept of state. One
question that has puzzled scholars and remains questionable to this day is why were so many
Vestals put to death for losing their virginity. During the thirty year term of service a Vestal
committed to Rome, virginity was to be maintained and punishable by death if broken. During
the existence of the religious cult, at least nineteen Vestals are known to have been executed
after being charged with crimen incestum.2 Liberated women, the Vestal Virgins enjoyed
privileges not afforded other women in Rome, and were set apart from the rest of society. They
were simultaneously members of the Roman women’s citizen class and non members of Rome’s
family structure. This dual status ensured that the Vestals could represent the Roman state as a
whole on the religious level without any risk of pollution from family cults. They were at the
same time matrons and virgins, two diametrically opposed concepts. Vestals represented what it
meant to be Roman, and were there from Rome’s inception with the mother of Romulus and
Remus herself being a Vestal.3 They were deemed necessary for the perseverance of Rome’s
political and religious structures, for as long as the Vestals remained pure, untouched virgins
during rituals and duties, then Rome would prosper. Every now and then, however, Rome would
falter. There would be turmoil from sources both within the Roman Empire, as well as exteriorly
1
Kroppenberg, Inge, “Law, Religion, and Constitution of the Vestal Virgins,”Law and Literature22,3 (2010): 428.
Worlsford, Sir T. Cato, The History of the Vestal Virgins (London, William Brendon & Sons, 1932), 59.
3
Worlsford, Sir T . Cato, The History of the Vestal Virgins, 15.
2
outside of Rome’s borders. Officials in Rome would look for omens and signs as explanations
for why Rome was faltering. Often the conclusion would be reached that one of the members of
the elite group of women tending the eternal flame of the hearth of the city must not be
performing her rituals and duties pure and untainted. Solutions to Rome’s misfortune would be
explained by the accusation of loss of virginity by a Vestal, and by purging the city of the
wrongdoer in order to restore balance once again to the empire. Rome’s Vestal Virgins were
used as symbolic sacrifices to mend breaks between Rome and the gods in times of political and
religious crisis, as well as tools to send messages to opposing factions or groups as warnings to
be silent.
The Term Vestal Virgin
The Vestal Virgins were named after Vesta, the goddess of the hearth. It is Vesta whom
the virgins served. Vesta was associated with the domestic fire that burned on the hearth of the
aedesVestae and in the individual hearths found in the home of each Roman.4 Vesta and the fire
that burned in the center of the city were seen as necessary to the security and longevity of the
Roman state. As long as both burned brightly and were tended to by chaste, pure virgins, then
Rome would prosper. The Vestal Virgins were a necessary element in maintaining this eternal
flame, and there were strict penalties to be evoked should the fire ever go out.
Vesta was not only tied to fire, but to the earth as well. This is an important concept to be
considered, for it was to the earth that a Vestal would be bound in the event of punishment for
losing her virginity. She has been tied to the underworld, which may explain why some of the
rites in which the Vestal Virgins engaged in were purification rituals involving earth and water.
4
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins (New York, Routledge, 2006), 6.
Interestingly enough, Vesta was also the goddess of weaving, marriage, and child
bearing. These are three traits tied to the traditional female role of matron. This is one role not
filled by Vestal Virgins, as marriage would require one losing their virginity in order to engage
in the child bearing process. Marriage also led to the traditional female role of spinning and
weaving cloth for the maintenance of the household. Vestal Virgins, therefore, could not be
matrons in the tradition sense, for they maintained the one aspect that could prevent them from
ever being so: Virginity. Vestal Virgins, therefore, did not represent all aspects of the goddess
Vesta, but primarily engaged in the religious ritual aspects of the goddess, such as purification
and maintenanceof the hearth.
Incorporated into Vesta’s persona is the concept of procreation. According to
SaroltaTakacs, the word Vesta is linguistically connected to the word “beget.”5 Takacs refers to a
relationship between the words “beget,” “fireplace,” and “king.” The Vestal Virgins as part of
their daily duties were to maintain the fire of Rome’s hearth. That fire was sacred, and thought
to procure the safety and prosperity of the Roman state. Pliny the Elder in Natural History wrote
about the Vestals worshipping a phallus as a god.6 Fire is therefore associated with the phallus,
which is a procreative force of life. It can destroy or create. Vestal Virgins retained their
virginity for the thirty years of their term, storing up their procreative forces. They tended the
fire of the life of Rome, ensuring the livelihood of the state for future generations.
Vestal Virgins: A Brief Background
Vestal Virgins were chosen between the ages of six and ten from the populous of Rome’s
children. Unblemished socially as well as politically, they served a term of thirty years to Vesta
5
Takacs, Sarolta, Vestal Virgins, Sibyls, and Matrons,(Texas, University of Texas Press, 2008), 84.
Takacs, Sarola, Vestal Virgins, Sibyls, and Matrons, 84.
6
and Rome. Both her mother and father had to be living, and married at the time of the girl’s
appointment to the priesthood. She also had to be under the control of a pater familias. Up until
5 CE, the girl was chosen amongst Rome’s patrician class. At this time Augustus had deemed a
shortage of candidates, for parents began to object to surrendering all rights to their daughters
and losing their patria potestas. Augustus therefore declared that the daughters of freedmen
were also eligible for appointment. Twenty candidates were selected by the Pontifex Maximus,
after which one was elected via public ballot. The candidates received a sum of money upon
appointment, and a yearly salary throughout the thirty year term of service.7
The process by which a girl was initiated into the priesthood of Vesta was through a
ceremony known as captio, or “capture,” and resembled a marriage rite. The Vestal’s hair was
styled in the manner of a Roman bride, and she wore the dress of a matron.8 The Pontifex
Maximus would take the chosen child by the hand and address her as follows:
“That even as the best law has been so do I take thee, Beloved One, to be a Vestal
Priestess, to perform the Sacred Rites, which it is meant for the priestess of Vesta to do
for the Roman People and Citizens.”9
Through these words, the girl would pass from the patria potestas of her father and come
under the authority of the Pontifex Maximus. She was basically emancipated from the control of
her father, and now answered to the high priest should discipline ever be warranted. If she
should die while in service to Rome, her property would pass to the state.
The duties of a Vestal Virgin were to “keep Rome’s sacred flame alive, prepare and use
cultic objects, and perform bloodless sacrifice throughout the year on behalf of and for the
7
Takacs, Sarolta, Vestal Virgins, Sybils, and Matrons,81.
Takacs, Sarolta, Vestal Virgins, Sybils, and Matrons, 82.
9
Worsfold, Sir T. Cato, History of the Vestal Virgins of Rome, 23.
8
Roman People.”10Vestal Virgins would draw water and carry it to temples for use in religious
rites. They would prepare a salt-wafer known as the mola salsa used in the festival of the
Lupercalia, which was sprinkled over the head of a sacrificed animal.11 This is the only form of
domestic cooking that a Vestal would engage in. They would attend and participate in numerous
religious festivals held from February through August of every year.12
Vestal Virgins enjoyed many privileges not commonly found amongst the women of
Rome. They possessed capabilities usually attributed to men. They were allowed to travel with
a lictor, which consisted of praetors and consuls following them about.
13
A lictor was a symbol
of office that only few magistrates were accompanied by. It was a symbol of power, and the
Vestals were the only women in Rome that were accompanied by this as they traveled through
the streets.14They sat with senators at gladiatorial games when women were not generally
welcome. They were keepers of wills and important documents such as treaties, and were able to
possess their own wills and bequeath property in their own right without the use of a tutor.
Vestal Virgins were capable of saving condemned criminals on their way to execution, as a mere
chance encounter was seen as divine intervention. They were deemed fit to testify in court,
providing evidence in a manner unseen for Roman women.15
Overall, they possessed the
threefold qualities of virgin, matron, and man, a combination of paradoxes unseen in a male
dominated society. They defied the boundaries of what it meant to be a virgin, a matron, and a
man. Vestal Virgins did not fit the mold of any of these groups, and walked fine lines between
them.
10
Takacs, Sarolta, Vestal Virgins, Sibyls, and Matrons, 83.
Worsfold, Sir T. Cato, History of the Vestal Virgins of Rome, 35.
12
Worsfold, Sir T. Cato, History of the Vestal Virgins of Rome, 28-29.
13
Takacs, Sarolta, Vestal Virgins, Sibyls, and Matrons, 83.
14
Staples, Ariadne, From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgin, (New York, Rutledge, 1998),214-215.
15
Beard, Mary, “The Sexual Status of the Vestal Virgins,”The Journal of Roman Studies, 70 (1980): 17.
11
The Importance of Virginity in the Case of the Vestals
Once a girl was chosen for the Vestal priesthood, it was mandatory that she remain
physically a virgin for her thirty year term of service. There have been many theories tossed
around as to why this virginity was necessary, and why the Roman people viewed it as necessary
for the survival of the state. For example, it has been argued that virginity was necessary to
separate the ordinary from the sacred. It may have been necessary to ensure that a Vestal remain
separate from family cults. It has also been suggested that virginity preserved procreative power.
All of these examples have been used to reason why Vestals were set apart and given special
statues. Cicero gave a different explanation as to why the Vestals had to maintain their virginity:
“Virgins should be present to worship her, so that the care and custody of the fire may
be more easily accomplished, and women may perceive that feminine nature is capable
of complete purity.”16
In other words, there are multiple facets as to why the Vestals needed to maintain their virginity.
Virginity had different meanings and different functions.
Virginity kept the Vestal outside of the family structure. She was removed from the
potestas of her family after the ritual of captio. She was a member of Rome’s civic structure.
Her virginity maintained this status for her thirty years of service. In Rome, women were either
matrons or virgins, each role carrying its own familial and civic characteristics. Matrons were
respected as the wife or widow of a Roman citizen. Virgins were morally pure, sexually intact,
16
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch,Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 52.
and marriageable. The women that fell between were usually non-members of the Roman state
and banned from participating in religious rites.17 The Vestals defied these categories. They
were not matron and not virgin, yet were vital members of the Roman state. Their ability to
maintain their virginity throughout their term of service qualified them as virgins, a label which
ensured that they remained morally pure and respectable. She was a daughter of a Roman
citizen, yet ineligible to marry for thirty years. This allowed a Vestal to remain outside of
Rome’s domestic structure and to abstain from serving any family cults. It ensured that the
Vestal remained faithful to serving the goddess and ensuring the fire of the hearth would remain
pure.
She would come to rituals of pure heart and mind, which would contribute to the
prosperity of the Roman state. This is important to understand, because it is exactly this concept
that would come into play should there be unrest in Rome, politically or religiously. Any threat
to Rome must have occurred for a reason, and many a Vestal found themselves as targets of
invalid charge of crimen incestum.
Crimen Incestum
Crimen incestum was the charge against a Vestal should it be discovered that she lost her
virginity during her thirty year term of service. It was a religious capital offense which involved
ritual impurity, a dire threat to the well being of the state.The term was used to describe any case
in which a violation of chastity was in question. It was based upon the concept of being
unchaste, or the voluntary surrender of her position as a Virgin by becoming sexually active. 18 A
Vestal found to be unchaste was not longer a symbol of the Roman Republic, and the loss of her
virginity placed the Republic in great danger. In fact, when all was well and the Republic was
17
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 53.
Kroppenberg, Inge, “Law, Religion, and Constitution of the Vestal Virgins,” 428.
18
thriving, then it was a sign that the Vestals were doing their job. The converse was true as well,
should the Republic falter, it meant a Vestal was not doing her job. Virginity was a sign of a
civilized state, and the loss of it in the case of a Vestal Virgin meant that Rome was sliding back
into a state of barbarianism and chaos.19 It was a loss of civilized order, because the Vestal’s
body represented a place where law, religion, and politics were separated. The loss of her
virginity violated the transition from the naturalized state to the civilized state.20 It was treason,
therefore, for a Vestal to voluntarily surrender their virginity. It was a betrayal to what it meant
to be Roman.
A Vestal accused of crimen inscestum underwent trial by the Pontifical College. A
Vestal was the only Roman official suspended from her official duties when accused of sexual
misconduct. She was also the only Roman woman that would be tried publicly in such a matter.
Some scholars believe this was because the loss of a Vestal’s virginity was a prodigium, or evil
omen.21 These signs were warnings “that the pax deorum had been broken by some human
action not the human action itself.”22 For example, every time a Vestal was accused of incestum
it was during the occurrence of another event, such as the fire of Vesta going out in the temple.
In this example the fire going out is the prodigium and the Vestal’s crime of losing her virginity
is the act announced by the fire being extinguished.The misbehavior of a Vestal upset the
reciprocal relationship between the Roman state and its gods. Prodigia revealed the break in the
relationship. It was believed that all actions and phenomena were linked, and everything could be
explained through relationships with the gods. The crimen incestum of a Vestal was not a true
prodigium, but a sign announced by bad omens.
19
Kroppenberg, Inge, “Law, Religion, and Constitution of the Vestal Virgins,” 429.
Kroppenberg Inge, “Law, Religion, and Constitution of the Vestal Virgins,” 429.
21
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 56.
22
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch,Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 56.
20
The incestus of a Vestal did not fall under the jurisdiction of the Roman res publica.23The
reason for this is twofold: Vestals transcended the status of civis as long as she was a Vestal and
it was a religious offense. The College of Pontiffs was in charge of religious offenses, with the
Pontifex Maximus acting as “judge and arbitrator of things divine and human.” 24 Priests would
call for the Vestal to cease all of her duties for the duration of the trial. The trial was held in the
presence of the Vestal, who was allowed to speak in her defense. Lawyers were present as was a
panel of judges. The decisions of the judges were supported by all priests involved in the
judicial process, and announced in the name of the entire panel.25
The trial of a Vestal contained magical elements. It was believed that Vestals possessed
the power to exonerate themselves of the charge of crimen incestum should they be able to
perform a miracle of sorts. If they could not, then their guilt was apparent. For example, in 230
BCE, the Vestal Aemilia was accused of incestus after the flame went out in the aedes Vestae.26
She said a prayer upon the altar to Vesta, and placed her veil upon it. Magically, the flame
ignited, and Aemilia was exonerated from the charge. Around the same time, the Vestal Tuccia
was accused of incestum. Tuccia proved her innocence by submerging a sieve into the River
Tiber and carrying it back to the Forum.27 It should be mentioned that both of these instances
date back to just before the onset of the Second Punic War, a time of unrest in Rome.28 There is
a third example of a Vestal saving herself due to some supernatural power. The Vestal Claudia
is believed to have freed a ship that ran aground in the Tiber. Claudia had been accused of being
23
Kroppenberg, Inge, “Law, Religion, and Constitution of the Vestal Virgins,” 429.
Kroppenberg, Inge, “Law, Religion, and Constitution of the Vestal Virgins, “ 429.
25
Kroppenbeg, Inge, “Law, Religion, and Constitution of the Vestal Virgins,” 430.
26
Kroppenberg, Inge, “Law, Religion, and Constitution of the Vestal Virgins,” 430.
27
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch,Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 85.
28
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 85.
24
unchaste because she had a propensity for nice things and was said to be vain. 29 It was believed
that she tied her belt around the ship, said a prayer, and pulled the ship back out to open water.
Only a virgin could do this with the help of the goddess. In the examples of Aemilia, Tuccia,
and Claudia, all of the miracles they performed go against the laws of nature. It is apparent that
the three were saved due to some supernatural event that exemplified the magical nature of the
power of the Vestals.
Only a virgin could possess such capabilities, and therefore Rome
declared they must be chaste.
Punishment for Crimen Incestum
The act by which civilization could be restored to the Roman state and reconciliation
with the gods in the event of disharmony occurred was through the live burial of the accused
Vestal. It was the only way to repair the breach between pax deorum and pax hominum, or the
balance between the gods and the people of Rome.30This act would provide a new beginning for
the res publica.31 Plutarch’s account of the punishment of a Vestal Virgin for losing their
virginity is the most well known. Ariadne Staples recounts this tale in her book From Good
Goddess to Vestal Virgin. It was a somber occasion, marked by the silence of all in attendance.
Vestals that broke their vow of chastity were buried alive near the Colline Gate, where in modern
day one might find the Ministry of Finance. The Colline Gate was located at the north end of the
Servian Wall. The Via Salaria and Via Nomentana lay just beyond the gate and were of great
economic importance as both were part of the ancient salt route. This route, called the Quirinal,
was a place of great economic importance. It believed to be the dwelling place of the Sabines,
dating back to the founding of Rome. The Vestals were therefore not only buried at a place of
29
Worsfold, Sir T. Cato, History of the Vestal Virgins of Rome, 69.
Takacs, Sarolta, Vestal Virgins, Sibyls and Matrons, 87.
31
Kroppenberg, Inge, “Law, Religion, and Constitution of the Vestal Virgins,” 431.
30
economic importance, but also a location dating back to the city’s founding. According to
Sarolta Takacs, the Colline Gate stressed success as well as failure.32
In this area of the Colline Gate, a small chamber was constructed with stairs leading
down to the earth below. A bed with blankets and a lighted oil lamp was placed inside the
chamber, along with small quantities of the necessities of life: bread, water, milk, and oil. The
placement of these items within the chamber absolved the individuals condemning the virgin to
death, for they were not directly bringing about the death in itself. The accused Vestal was
placed on a closed litter, bound hand and foot, and carried through the forum. The people
present silently made way for the litter as it travelled by, following it without making a sound. It
was a sight of gloom. When the litter reached its destination, the cords were unfastened and the
high priest would cite prayers. The Vestal would be brought forward, veiled, and placed on the
steps leading down into the chamber. The priest would turn his back on the condemned, as well
as anyone else present. The Vestal would then walk down the steps to her grave, and earth
would be piled into the entrance of the chamber, hiding it away from the rest of the world to
see.33
The burial of a Vestal Virgin was a unique occurrence in Rome. It was an occasion of
marked somberness, something not usually seen in a land used to gory battles and killing for
sport. It was accompanied by heavy emotion, and symbolic in nature. One of the most telling
aspects of the execution of a Vestal was the fact that she was not executed in the traditional
sense. There was no executioner present actually carrying out the manner of death. Rather, the
Vestal walked down the steps into the chamber of death by her own accord. She was not being
put to death directly, although eventually the Vestal would succumb to the lack of life’s
32
Takacs, Sarolta, Vestal Virgins, Sibyls, and Matrons, 89.
Staples, Ariadne, From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins, 193-194.
33
necessities.34 She would eventually starve to death, and it was through this starvation that the
Vestal would restore order to Rome. She would repair the break between Rome and the gods.
Rome would thus continue to prosper. The Vestal would atone for the misconduct of the entire
populous.
Everything about the burial of a Vestal carried symbolic significance, from the location
of burial to the items interred with the victim.
It was believed that interment into the earth
would preserve whatever procreative potential the Vestal still possessed and manifest it into
successful crops. Vesta, it must be remembered, was an earth goddess. It may be seen that the
interment of a Vestal into the earth was possibly an offering to Vesta in order to right the wrong
made by the Vestal causing the breach amongst the gods and Rome. In Roman religion, it was
vital that when one made an offering to a god, one went about it in a manner that ensured the
proper god received it.35 This may be the case with the Vestal: an earth goddess required her
offering be laid into the earth. The Vestal was buried inside of it.
The items interred with the victim also carried significance. According to Robin Lorsch
Wildfang, it was originally believed by scholars that the items were included in order to prevent
blame being placed on the Romans for the death of the Vestal. This inclusion would signify that
if the Vestal were to die, it would be Vesta’s decision instead of man’s. By including these
items, the Romans avoided human sacrifice.36 There may be other reasons for the inclusion of
these items. One possible explanation is that the items are related to agriculture, since Rome had
such a strong agricultural heritage. A second possibility may be that the items were left in the
chamber as an offering for the dead, a way to appease the Vestal once she succumbed to
starvation. A third possible explanation is that the items were placed in the chamber because
34
Staples, Ariadne, From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgin, 196.
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch,Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 59.
36
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch,Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 59.
35
they were used in religious rites. For example, milk, water and oil were used in purification
rites. Milk, however, when examined in direct relationship to the Vestals, has a different
significance. Milk from donkeys played a major role in the Vestal festival known as Vestalia. If
donkey milk was buried with the Vestal, then it could be seen that the other items buried along
with the Vestal were done so because they were symbolic of the rituals of the Vestals, and not
just to keep her alive. The water would be symbolic to daily rituals conducted by the Vestals, the
lamp and oil would represent the hearth and its eternal flame, and the bread would represent the
preparation of the mola salsa used in religious festivals.37
The Fallen Ones
Throughout the five hundred plus year history of the Vestal Virgins, it is believed that at
least nineteen Vestals were accused of crimen incestum.38 These accounts were recorded by
ancient writers such as Plutarch, Livy, and Ovid, and written many years after the fact. Because
of this, some of the accounts of Vestals put to death may have been skewed to reflect the ideals
of the time in which they were written. The accounts of the Vestals that suffered live burial
spans from the Rome’s Regal Period of the early kings and through the time of the Republic.
Often, these individuals, symbolic of Rome, suffered due to political or religious strife. Some
were frankly put to death to make a point.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus recorded the first incident of crimen incestum which occurred
during the reign of Tarquinius Priscus.39 The Vestal Pinaria was convicted of incestum. It is this
king that is credited with creating live burial as the punishment for a Vestal performing her
duties in a state of “uncleanliness.” Dionysius wrote that Tarquinius Priscus established live
37
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 60.
Takacs, Sarolta,Vestal Virgins, Sibyls, and Matrons, 87.
39
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch,Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 78.
38
burial as punishment because he “was motivated by his own views or, as some believe, following
a dream; and this punishment, according to the interpreters of religious rites, was found after his
death among the Sibylline oracles.”40 He also writes that Pinaria was the daughter of Publius.
This may have been a statement included in order to identify the family that Pinaria had been in
potestas of prior to her captio. The death of Pinaria may have been a message from the king to
the noble families. It may also have been a way for Romans in a later time to link their history to
the origin of the founding of Rome.
Historical accounts of Vestals in the early Republic period are mentioned primarily in
connection with crimen incestum. There may have been other instances of the death of Vestals
not mentioned by ancient sources, and therefore it may never be known how many were killed.
It is assumed by most scholars that these known cases were written down because they may
reflect the situation in Rome at the time of the accusations. For example, a Vestal was usually a
sacrificial scapegoat, put to death in order for Rome to avoid some calamity. There are
approximately nine instances of such from the founding of the republic to the end of the Second
Punic War. Seven of these scholars are sure of their dates of occurrence. Four of these take
place at times when a direct message needed to be sent to Romans the Vestal was associated
with. The others take place at the time of a plague, with Rome in crisis.41
In 483 BCE four sources write of a woman known as Oppia who was the first Vestal put
to death over incestum in the early Republic.42 It is said that during this time there were many
dark omens which occurred. She was believed to have been a plebeian, and therefore not a
member of Rome’s elite class. At this time in history, Rome was in political upheaval.
Agricultural reforms had divided the patricians and the plebeians. The Pontifex Maximus was a
40
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 78.
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 78.
42
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 82.
41
patrician, and therefore may have sided with his own class. The accusation against Oppia may
have been used as a tool to send a message to the plebeians: do not overstep class boundaries.
There are two other instances of Vestals being accused of crimen incestum in the early
republic. Posthumia was accused in 420 BCE because she had a propensity for dressing in a way
not suitable for a Vestal.43 She had a flair for the elegant and behaved in a manner unbecoming
of her office. She was ordered to refrain from joking and to be holy by the Pontifex Maximus.
There may have been an political message being sent through the accusation of Posthumia. She
was the sister of a military tribune, M. Postumius, accused of failure in battle. This situation had
put Rome in danger and caused an attitude of resentment towards Postumius’ family. Posthumia
was accused of being unchaste a year after her brother’s conviction. She may have been
exonerated of the charges because she was a patrician, and a member of the same social class as
the Pontifical College.
A similar situation befell the Vestal Minucia in 337 BCE.44 She was also accused of
being unchaste due to her dress and the manner in which she carried herself. Political struggles
appear to be the reason Minucia was charged with incestum. Around the time of her accusation,
there was great discord between the patricians and plebeians. The plebeians had been gaining
political momentum. In the year that Minucia was accused, a plebeian was elected as praetor.
Minucia had been the daughter of a prominent plebeian family, and would have been a political
target of the patricians. Minucia held a high religious office, and was looked up to as an example
as to what plebeians could strive to be. There were many patricians that felt plebeians were not
suitable to hold religious office, as that had traditionally been a patrician’s role. Minucia was
43
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch,Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 83.
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 83.
44
found guilty of the charge of crimen incestum and was buried alive. Her death was most likely
meant to be a message sent to plebeians to not overstep their traditional roles.
In 216 BCE, Livy recorded the accusation and death of two Vestals: Opimia and
Floronia.45 One of these women was buried alive at the Colline Gate, while the other committed
suicide. Opimia, by losing her virginity polluted the holy rites. Torture was used to extract the
“truth” out of her, and her lovers were flogged to death. The lover of Floronia was beaten to
death in public at the hands of the Pontifex Maximus as was the usual manner of death for the
lover of a Vestal. During this time, Hannibal was conquering much of what we know of today as
Italy, and was close to Rome. Many lives had been lost, and the women of Rome were in
turmoil. They were lamenting the loss of their husbands in the streets. Gender barriers were
breaking down, as women were comingling with men discussing political issues. The behavior
of women was therefore becoming an issue, and the accusations against Opimia and Floronia
may have been used as a tool to send a symbolic message to Rome’s women. Accusations of
Vestal unchastity were provoked by the fear and danger of Rome’s possible downfall. These
accusations were meant to get the women under control and restore balance.
There are three other instances of Vestals dying due to accusations of crimen incestum
during the early republic. These executions did not take place during times of political strife, but
instead during times of plague. Their deaths may have not been messages to a particular political
faction, but did carry symbolic weight toward women. In 472 BCE, Orbinia was accused and
executed because of a plague that was targeting women.46 A slave is said to have come forward
with information that Orbinia had been conducting religious rites in a state of being unchaste.
She was whipped with rods and buried alive. One of the men accused of having sexual relations
45
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 80.
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 84.
46
with her committed suicide. A second lover was flogged to death in the Forum. In 274 or 273
BCE, Sextilia was convicted and buried alive. In 266 BCE, Caparronia was convicted and
scheduled to be buried alive, but she decided to hang herself before the sentence could be carried
out.47 During these years, from 472 through 266 BCE, the same plague continued to rage
throughout Rome. This plague was a threat to pregnant women, and therefore fertility. This
fertility was not just representative of the successful propagation of the Roman people, but
representative of the Roman state. The plagues were most active during spring, and therefore
would interfere with the religious festivals occurring at that time. Without those festivals to
ensure prosperity and success, Rome would be in danger. It was natural for the people to tie
insecurity of Rome’s future to prodigium and evil omens. It must have meant that a Vestal was
not doing her job with purity.
The period of history after Second Punic War is more contemporary with much of the
ancient authors that wrote of Vestals accused of crimen incestum. Because these instances are
closer in time to when the ancient author is writing, they may be more accurate in detail than the
older examples of incestum. This period covers the time of the late Republic through the early
Empire. A Vestal’s primary duties remained centered around religious rites and festivals, but
they also began to participate more in the political schema of the times. They began to work to
improve the influence of the priesthood and may have tried to alter the requirement of chastity.48
One of the most well- known examples of incestum during this time was recorded in 114
BCE.49 Three Vestals were accused of sexual activity after lightning struck the daughter of a
Roman knight while she was riding on horseback. The bolt of lightning was so powerful it left
the girl naked. This event was seen as a prodigium. For such a thing to happen to an innocent
47
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 85.
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch,Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 91.
49
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 91.
48
girl, other events must be awry. It was natural for the Roman people to assume that this
occurrence would have been the result of a Vestal performing her duties in a state of being
unchaste. As a result, a slave came forward with information that Marcia, Aemilia, and Licinia
had taken lovers. Marcia was accused of having one lover, while Aemilia and Licinia were
believed to have had many (including each other’s brothers and group sex).50 The three were
tried by the Pontifical College, with only Marcia being found guilty and sentenced to death. This
decision angered the populace of Rome, for the people believed that this was an omen of danger
to the Republic. Due to the outrage of the people and fear over Rome’s safety, a special court
was called into session spearheaded by L. Cassius Longinus in 113 BCE.51 Aemilia and Licinia
were found guilty and sentenced to death. The lovers of the two were also sentenced to death.
At the time of the trials of Marcia, Aemilia, and Licinia, the attitude in Rome was one of
change. R. Bauman states that in Rome at this time, the people began to question the old ways of
life, especially the women. Women began to rebel against the rules, Vestals included. The
actions of Marcia, Aemilia, and Licinia may have been stances against the old ways, and an
attempt to break the bounds of virginity. They may have believed that the requirement was a
restrictive one that they had no choice over since they were taken when they were young girls
between the ages of six and ten. The choice to remain a virgin was made for them, when in
actuality many of them may have preferred the status as matron. Some of the Vestals may have
acted out of a desire to shed the bounds of the old fashioned ways in favor for new ways of
thinking.52 Their timing, however, may have been poorly planned, as many of them lost their
lives in attempt to make change. The actions of the Roman populace reveals that this type of
change was not welcomed and that the people were holding onto the old ways. They did not
50
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 93.
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 94.
52
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 94.
51
want Vestals that were unchaste. It must also be recalled that the plebeians during this time were
pushing for more power in the religious arena to the angst of the patricians. The death sentences
of the three Vestals may have been a last ditch effort for the patricians to make a statement to the
plebeians.
Toward the first century BCE, Vestals began to focus more on influencing the politics of
Rome as a group rather than individually. In 73 BCE two Vestals were accused of incestum in
separate instances.53 Fabia was accused of taking Catiline as her lover, while Licinia was said to
have had an affair with her cousin M. Licinius Crassus who was Consul in 70 BCE.54 Fabia was
the half-sister of Terentia, Cicero’s wife. Catiline was famous for his rebellious behavior and
well known throughout Rome. He was a member of a political faction in Rome known as the
Populares. Licinia was the daughter of a family active in the Populares. Crassus, her lover, was
her cousin and proconsular against Spartacus. He was also a member of the First Triumvirate.
The individual accusing both Fabia and Licinia of being unchaste was a member of the
Optimates, the opposing party of the Populares. Fabia was acquitted due to her advocates’
defense, while Licinia was acquitted because Crassus was able to prove he was only interested in
buying some property from her.
The political atmosphere in Rome during this time was one of dissent. The plebeians and
patricians were in a struggle over the rights of citizens. There was a rash of attacks by pirates on
Roman shipping, decreasing the food supply. Spartacus had gathered his army of 70,000 slaves
and runaways, and was leading a rebellion.55 The people turned to the old ways: a Vestal was
performing the sacred rites unchaste, and therefore charges must be brought and the problem
rectified.
53
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 96.
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 96.
55
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 96.
54
The trial that the Vestals endured was not the same as in the past. Their fates were no
longer in the hands of the Pontifical College, for they were now allowed advocates to defend
them. This often occurred after an initial trial by the Pontifical College. Should the Vestals be
found innocent, a second trial may be warranted by the people. It is this trial in which the
advocates would be brought in. The problem with this was that sometimes the Pontifical College
would acquit the Vestal of her charges, while the second court would find them guilty. Fate
smiled upon Fabia and Licinia in this matter. They were strong individuals that knew how to
manipulate the system in their favor. It must also be noticed that the attitude of the people may
have been changing as well. Before, the people may have not been satisfied with the acquittals
of the two Vestals. They would have viewed the decision as an imminent risk to the safety of
Rome. Because they two were allowed to live, it shows that changes were occurring in Rome.
In the time of the Judeo-Claudians, the Vestals were afforded such privileges as
attending athletic contests. Nero is said to have granted this privilege to the Vestals because he
wanted to promote the importance of the goddess Ceres.56 In order to become close to the
goddess, he raped the Vestal Rubria.57 He used the Vestals to strengthen the prestige of a person
or group close to him. Since the Vestals were at the heart of what it meant to be Roman, they
had to be included in all instances of importance. If new ideas were imposed upon the people, it
was important to include the Vestals in all changes. If the Vestals participated, then the people
would follow suit.
The last famous examples of accusations of incestum against Vestals occurred during the
reign of Domitian.58 During this time, four Vestals were accused of being unchaste. Under
Domitian, the Vestals had returned to the old ways and commenced their traditional duties.
56
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch,Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 103.
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 103.
58
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch,Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 104.
57
Varronilla and the sisters Oculatae were tried and found guilty of performing the sacred rites in a
state of being unchaste. Instead of being buried alive, they were allowed to determine their own
manner of death.59 The most famous case of incestum from the reign of Domitian is the trial and
death of Cornelia Maxima. It is believed she may have been tried with Varronilla and the
Oculatae sisters, but was initially acquitted. Ancient sources relay that the first three Vestals
were indeed guilty of being unchaste, and that the Vestal order had largely been ignoring the
virginity requirement for some time. The emperors Vespasian and Titus did not seem to care
about the promiscuity of the Vestals, but that was not the case with Domitian. Domitian, known
for his “reign of terror,” decided that Cornelia, the senior Vestal of the time, should be
condemned to death without trial. He accused her of having sexual relations with a Roman
knight by the name of Celer.60 According to Plutarch, the pontifices were immediately sent to
watch the burial of Cornelia. She raised her hands and prayed to Vesta, crying “Caesar thinks I
am impure, I who have performed so many rites by which he conquered and triumphed.”61 She
repeated this continuously from the time she was condemned until she descended down into her
earthly chamber. As she walked down the steps into her tomb, her stola caught on an item. The
executioner offered her his hand, to which she ignored. His hand was impure, and Cornelia’s
rejection of his assistance was a clear message that she was going to her death chaste and
untouched by man. Her adamant declaration of innocence speaks to the times. She was most
likely a victim of Domitian’s desire to be remembered as an emperor whose reign of terror took
down a chief Vestal.
59
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 104.
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 104.
61
Wildfang, Robin Lorsch, Rome’s Vestal Virgins, 104.
60
Conclusion
The charge of crimen incestum is one that was used as a political tool against the Vestal
Virgins in times where a message needed to be sent to the people of Rome. Vestals would often
be accused of losing their virginity and be put to death during times of war, famine, plague, and
political upheaval. The Vestal Virgins were at the heart of what it meant to be Roman, and the
people viewed them as representatives of the condition of the state. When things were good and
prosperous, the people felt secure and knew that the Vestals were going about their duties chaste
and pure. The converse was true as well, for if things were precarious in the Rome, it meant that
the Vestals were up to no good. One of them must have performed the sacred rites in a state of
uncleanliness. The punishment of live burial was initiated in order to restore balance between
man and the gods during these times of turmoil in Rome. The Vestal was sacrificed in order to
restore harmony to the people and to ensure the security and future of Rome. Through interment
in the earth, the procreative power of the Vestal was transferred to the land. This act ensured that
Rome would produce bountiful crops in order to feel the people. Vestals were interred near the
Colline Gate, a site of economic importance. The items placed within the tomb were symbolic of
the ritual life of the Vestal. The goddess determined whether the Vestal lived or died in her
earthly chamber, freeing the accusers of any direct role in the death of a woman viewed as so
vital to the continuance of the state. Such attention to detail in the execution of a chosen woman
of Rome was symbolic of the importance of her role to the well- being of the people. As time
progressed and Vestals attempted to bring more power to their religious roles and find freedom
from the bounds of virginity, they were targeted and accused of incestum. Vestals were the only
women in Rome to suffer death for sexual promiscuity. They were often innocent victims of
political struggle, used as sacrificial scapegoats to silence the masses.
Works Cited
1. Beard, Mary. “The Sexual Status of the Vestal Virgins.” The Journal of Roman Studies,
vol. 70 (1980): 12-27.
2. Kroppengberg, Inge. “Law, Religion, and Constitution of the Vestal Virgins.” Law and
Literature 22, no. 3 (2010): 418-439.
3. Staples, Ariadne. From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins. New York: Routledge, 1998.
4. Takacs, Sarolta A. Vestal Virgins, Sibyls, and Matrons. Texas: University of Texas
Press, 2008.
5. Wildfang, Robin Lorsch. Rome’s Vestal Virgins. New York: Routledge, 2006.
6. Worsfold, Sir T. Cato. History of Rome’s Vestal Virgins. Great Britain: William
Brendon & Son, Ltd., 1932.
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