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МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РФ Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение «АЛТАЙСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ» WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY? Учебное пособие по английскому языку Барнаул 2012 УДК 811.112=20(075.8) What Is Sociology? [Текст]: учебное пособие по английскому языку для студентов факультета социологии Алтайского государственного университета . Барнаул: АлтГУ, 2012. – 51 c. Составитель: доцент кафедры иностранных языков гуманитарных факультетов Кузикова Т.Г. Рецензент: к.ф.н., доцент кафедры иностранных языков гуманитарных факультетов Беляева В.А. Учебное пособие “What Is Sociology?” предназначено для развития навыков чтения, говорения и интерпретации текстов по специальности для студентовсоциологов. Каждый раздел содержит множество заданий, позволяющих развивать и совершенствовать устную речь, а также активизировать профессионально-ориентированную лексику, что поможет студентам читать и переводить оригинальную литературу по специальности и вести беседы на темы, предусмотренные программой. Данное пособие рассчитано на аудиторную и самостоятельную работу студентов 2 курса дневного и заочного отделений всех специальностей факультета социологии. UNIT1. WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY? The name of sociology was first suggested in the 1830s by the French philosopher Auguste Comte, but for many years it remained only a suggestion. Comte urged others to study philosophy. It was not until late in the19th century that we can identify people who called themselves sociologists and whose work contributed to the development of the field. Among these were Herbert Spencer in England who published the first of threevolume “Principles of Sociology” in 1876 and Ferdinand Tonnies in Germany. A decade later, Emile Durkheim published “Suicide”. The first sociologists studied moral statistics. Their work proved so popular that it led to the rapid expansion of census questions. However, sociology as an academic speciality was imported from Germany. The progressive uncovering of social causes of individual behavior – in response to the questions raised by moral statistics – produced the field called sociology. Sociology is one of the related fields known as the social sciences. They share the same subject matter: human behavior. But sociology is the study of social relations, and its primary subject matter is the group, not the individual. There is a close connection between sociology and other disciplines such as psychology, economy, anthropology, criminology, political science, and history. But sociologists differ from psychologists because they are not concerned exclusively with the individual; they are interested in what goes on between people. They differ from economists by being less interested in commercial exchanges; they are interested in the exchange of intangibles such as love and affection. Sociologists differ from anthropologists primarily because the latter specialize in the study of preliterate and primitive human groups, while sociologists are interested in modern industrial societies. Criminologists specialize in illegal behavior, while sociologists are concerned with the whole range of human behavior. Similarly, political scientists focus on political organization and activity, while sociologists survey all social organizations. Finally, sociologists share with historians an interest in the past but are equally interested in the present and the future. Sociology is a broader discipline than the other social sciences. In a sense, the purpose of sociologists is, in general, to find the connections that unite various social sciences into a comprehensive, integrated science of society. Sociology consists of two major fields of knowledge: micro sociology and macro sociology. Micro sociologists study the patterns and processes of face-to-face interaction between humans. Macro sociologists attempt to explain the fundamental patterns and processes of large-scale social relations. They concentrate on larger groups, even on whole societies. Sociologists attempt to use research to discover if certain statements about social life are correct. The basic tools of their research are tests, questionnaires, interviews, surveys, and public opinion polls. Task 1. Transcribe the following words and learn their pronunciation: anthropology, identify, illegal, macro, micro, philosophy, primary, process, psychology, science, social, society, sociologist, sociology, speciality, specialize Task 2. Answer the following questions: 1. Who was the first to suggest the name sociology? 2. Who were the first sociologists? 3. What were they mainly interested in? 4. What country was sociology as an academic discipline imported from? 5. What is the subject matter of sociology? 6. What other disciplines is sociology closely connected with? 7. What is the goal of sociologists? 8. What fields of knowledge does sociology consist of? 9. What do micro sociologists study? 10.What do macro sociologists attempt to explain? 11.What are the basic tools of sociological research? Task 3. Explain the difference concerning the subject matter between: a) sociology and economy; b) sociology and criminology; c) sociology and history; d) sociology and psychology; e) sociology and anthropology. Task 4. Read the text and translate it in writing: Sociology, as a science, takes its point of departure from the materialist world outlook in its application to the solution of social problems. In this application sociology demonstrates its scientific character as it employs some guiding principles in the understanding of social affairs. They are: 1) The society in its development is regulated by objective laws discovered by science. 2) Views and institutions, political, ideological and cultural developments arise on the basis of the development of the material life of society. 3) Ideas and institutions, which thus arise on the basis of conditions of material life, play an active role in the development of material life. So, sociology studies regularities in social processes, connections between social events, which are independent of our consciousness and will, social relations and social institutions. Sociology is concerned, as well, with circumstances which give rise to the formation of aims and intentions in people’s minds. Different people have different aims. This does not mean that individual psychologies differ, but it expresses the fact that people find themselves in different circumstances, with different interests arising from those circumstances. Task 5. Speak on: 1. The origin of sociology. 2. Its subject matter. 3. Differences and similarities of sociology and other social sciences. 4. Major fields of sociology. 5. Basic sociological research methods. 6. The guiding principles of sociology. Task 6. Translate the following words and word-combinations into Russian: It was not until late in the 19th century; three-volume; rapid expansion; census questions; in response to the questions; share the same subject matter; exchange of intangibles; preliterate and primitive human groups; similarly; are equally interested in; large-scale social relations Task 7. Find in the text English “What is sociology?” equivalents for: Это оставалось только предложением; спустя десятилетие; оказалась настолько популярной; одна из смежных областей; тесная связь; главный предмет; противозаконное поведение; весь спектр человеческого поведения; в то время как социологи занимаются; в определенном смысле; всеобъемлющая комплексная наука об обществе; основные области знаний; фундаментальные модели; основные инструменты исследования Task 8. Translate the following sentences into Russian: 1. He was greatly concerned with the latest sociological research. 2. In their conversation they concerned a great number of vital problems. 3. His main concern was sociology. 4. They talked much concerning the main points of his report. 5. She was concerned with the problems of social relations at the high level of the society’s development. Task 9. Memorize the following words and word-combinations: behavior primarily census public opinion poll concern (n., v.) questionnaire differ from society discipline statement focus on (v.) subject matter guiding principles suggest major survey (n., v.) pattern tools of research preliterate urge (n., v.) UNIT 2. SOCIAL BAROMETER A great part of sociological research consists of quantitative experimenting. The system of techniques used for that purpose is that of statistical methods. These methods are necessary to examine the data, analyze them and draw certain conclusions. The results of the sociological survey are published then. Sociological research is usually conducted by a working group under the supervision of the leading sociologists of the All-Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion. The public opinion poll is a criterion of the current social life within the society. It is the so-called social barometer of the country. In fact our fast-moving life makes it necessary to analyze things. So it is useful to examine the results of sociological surveys. The public opinion poll is carried out nationwide or in some definite regions, cities, establishments. It may be verbal in the form of an interview. But more often the opinion poll is conducted by means of tests or questionnaires. The questionnaires contain some items to be chosen by the subjects. In other cases the questionnaires present a set of questions to be answered by the respondents in their individual way. The polled may express their own opinions verbally or in writing. The assessments may be optimistic, pessimistic, dramatic, positive, or negative. They expose and reassess our ideals and values. The polls are very popular nowadays throughout the country. In general, they are directed to assess current social and political situation, political figures, the most important events, economic perspectives, our losses and gains, and so on. All data are given in percentages. Task 1. Transcribe the following words and learn their pronunciation: analyze, barometer, criterion, examine, figure, ideal, individual, interview, percentage, perspective, respondent, result, situation, technique Task 2. Answer the following questions: 1. What methods are the basic tools in every sociological research? 2. Who conducts sociological research? 3. What is considered to be a social barometer? 4. Where is the public opinion poll carried out? 5. In what form may it be conducted? 6. What are the questionnaires like? 7. How do the polled express their opinions? 8. What do assessments expose? 9. What is the aim of the polls? 10.How are all data given? Task 3. Divide the text into four logical parts. Task 4. Speak on the main points of the text. Task 5. Try to make up your own questionnaire and offer it to your groupmates. Task 6 . Look through the fresh newspapers and find there some information on the latest polls. Be ready to comment on it. Task 7. Translate the following words and word-combinations into Russian: Sociological research, sociological survey, public opinion, public opinion poll, to conduct a poll, to carry out a poll, the polled, respondent, to assess, to reassess, assessment Task 8. Find in the text English equivalents for: система методов; с этой целью; рабочая группа; современная общественная жизнь; так называемый; по всей стране; в других случаях; ряд вопросов; пересмотреть идеалы; потери и приобретения; и так далее; в процентах; в наше время Task 9. Fill in the blanks with the necessary words: to conduct, conclusions, to examine, poll, to assess, assessments 1. Statistical methods are used to analyze the data and draw … . 2. The opinion … is carried out nationwide. 3. Leading sociologists … a poll all over the country. 4. The polls are directed to … social and political situation. 5. The respondents give their … verbally or in writing. 6. Sociologists carefully … the obtained data. Task 10. Complete the following sentences: 1. The public opinion poll is a criterion of … . 2. It is the so-called … . 3. The poll is carried out … . 4. It may be verbal in the form of … . 5. The opinion poll is conducted by means of … . 6. The polls are directed to … . 7. The poll data are given in …. 8. The assessments may be … . 9. The polls are very popular nowadays … . 10.The questionnaires contain some items … . Task 11. Translate the text in writing: The foundation of Comte’s work was an attempt to apply scientific methods to the study of society and to the practical task of social reform. In his own lifetime, scientific thinking was becoming more sophisticated and influential than ever before, increasing human knowledge about the physical world. Why not, Comte reasoned, apply the same scientific methods to understanding the social world? In Comte’s view, sociology should attempt to determine the laws that govern human social behavior, in much the same way that natural laws govern the operation of the physical world. Comte’s sociological study was concerned with what he called social statics - how society maintains itself as a cohesive system of many interrelated parts – and social dynamics – how society changes in an orderly way according to specific social laws. Task 12. Memorize the following words and word-combinations: assess nationwide assessment obtain by means of publish carry out research quantitative conduct research respondent current subject (n., v.) draw conclusions technique event the polled expose under the supervision item verbally UNIT 3. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY The discipline of sociology involves more than a distinctive point of view. The sociological perspective illuminates new facts in countless familiar situations; but linking specific observations together in a meaningful way involves another element of the discipline, theory. In the simplest terms, a theory is an explanation of the relationship between two or more specific facts. To illustrate the use of theory in sociology, recall Emile Durkheim’s study of suicide. Durkheim attempted to explain why some categories of people (males, Protestants, the wealthy, and the unmarried) have higher suicide rates than do others (females, Catholics, the poor, and the married). To do so, he linked one set of facts – suicide rates – to another set of facts – the level of social integration characteristic of these various categories of people. Through systematic comparisons, Durkheim was able to develop a theory of suicide, namely, that people with low social integration are more prone to take their own lives. To provide another illustration, how might we explain the sociological observation that college science courses in the United States typically contain more men than women? One theoretical approach would suggest that the sciences are more attractive to males than to females; perhaps males simply have a greater innate interest in science. Another possibility is that American society encourages male to develop an interest in science while simultaneously discouraging this interest in females. A third theoretical approach might suggest that the educational system has some formal policy that limits the enrollment of women in science courses. As this example suggests, there may be more than one theoretical explanation for any particular issue. Therefore, the ability to link facts together into a meaningful theory does not in itself mean that theory is correct. In order to evaluate contrasting theories, sociologists make use of various methods of scientific research. As sociologists use these scientific methods to gather more and more information, they are able to confirm some theories while rejecting or modifying others. In the early decades of the 20th century, several sociologists interested in the rapid growth of cities developed theories that linked city living to distinctive patterns of human behavior such as pronounced impersonality and even mental illness. However, research completed during subsequent decades has found that living in a large city does not necessarily result in social isolation, nor does it diminish mental health. Within any discipline therefore, theory is never static, because sociologists are continually carrying out research, sociological theory is always being refined. Task 1. Transcribe the words and learn their pronunciation: category, characteristic, contrasting, course, illuminate, modify, observation, policy, static, suicide, systematic, theoretical, theory Task 2. Answer the following questions: 1. What is meant by theory? 2. What did Durkheim base his research on? 3. What is the essence of his suicide theory? 4. What sociological observation was made among college science students? 5. What did sociologists make use of to evaluate contrasting theories? 6. Is theory static or changeable within any discipline? 7. Who are more prone to science study according to the sociological observation in the United States? Do you agree with this point of view? Task 3. Find in the text English equivalents for: точка зрения; бесчисленный; набор фактов; а именно; более склонны; одновременно; любой частный вопрос; следовательно; для того, чтобы; извлекать пользу; подтверждать теории; внутри; последующие десятилетия; характерные модели человеческого поведения; резко выраженная безличность; проводить исследование Task 4. Find in the text antonyms for: indefinite, unfamiliar, meaningless, complex, to forget, similar, to be unable, repulsive, learned, to discourage, wrong, to accept a theory, late, slow, personality, to start Task 5. Divide the text into logical parts and make up a plan of the text. Task 6. Speak on the text. Task 7. Translate the text in writing: The gradual development of scientific thought in Europe was one important foundation of sociology. But something more was involved: revolutionary change in European society itself. The increasing importance of science is but one dimension of the modernization of Europe. Social change, of course, is continuous but European societies experienced particularly rapid transformations during the 17 th and 18th centuries. In the midst of intense social change that reached crisis proportions, people were less likely to take society for granted. Indeed, as the social ground shook under their feet, they focused more and more on society, which stimulated the emergence of the sociological perspective. Three dimensions of social change occurred in that era, each truly revolutionary in its own right. First, various technological innovations in eighteenth-century Europe led to the appearance of factories, initially in England. This new way of producing material goods soon gave rise to an industrial economy. Second, factories located within cities drew millions of people from the countryside, where agriculture had been traditional livelihood. As a result, the growth of industry was accompanied by the explosive growth of cities. Third, the development of the economy and the growth of cities were linked to changes in political ideas. Task 8. Fill in the blanks with the following words in the necessary forms and translate the sentences into Russian: to be influenced by, to encourage, to be interested in, to be concerned with, to make use of, to give rise to, to be prone to, to carry out research 1. People … greatly … … society since the beginning of human history. 2. Systematic studies of the society carried out by the social thinkers … … … appearing a new science – sociology. 3. They are planning … … … … on the basis of a new scientific approach. 4. The scholars … primarily … … the investigation of the sociological perspective. 5. Early sociologists … strongly … … Comte’s ideas. 6. The scholars … constant … … his ways of interpreting and analyzing new phenomena. 7. They always … scientific methods of investigation in any particular observation. 8. He … … … take part in the discussion concerning the operation of social laws within the society. Task 9. Read and translate the following sentences taking into account different meanings of the word ‘experience’: 1. He experienced great hardships in the life, but in spite of that he continued his work in the field of sociological research. 2. They considered him to be a very experienced scholar as far as the sociological perspective was concerned. 3. His experience was great and he readily encouraged such innovative strivings. 4. They experienced true feelings of friendship to each other and this devotion lasted all their life. 5. The situation was out of being ordinary and he understood her experiences quite well. 6. Recent decades of our century experienced tremendous transformations in all spheres of the life. 7. He described the situation in such a way as if he had experienced it himself. 8. His experience in this field was quite evident and nobody doubted it. Task 10. Memorize the following words and word-combinations: be prone to issue (n., v.) confirm level develop a theory link (n., v.) discourage make use of distinctive point of view encourage refine evaluate reject experience (n., v.) relationship familiar simultaneously involve through comparisons UNIT 4. METHODS OF SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH Four research methods are widely employed in sociological investigation. A method is a strategy for carrying out research in a systematic way – comparable to a blueprint used in building or a recipe in cooking. The four methods discussed here are all expressions of the logic science. They differ, however, in the specific ways in which observations are made and in the kinds of questions they help us answer. No method is in an absolute sense better or worse than any other; each has characteristic strengths and weaknesses so that any method is particularly suited for certain kinds of research. Experiments The logic of science is clearly expressed in the experiment – a method that seeks to specify a cause-and-effect relationship among variables. Experimental research, in other words, is explanatory in character, attempting to show what factors in the social world cause change to occur in other factors. Experiments are typically based on the text of a specific hypothesis – a theoretical statement of a relationship between independent and dependent variables. The goal of an experiment is to find out whether or not the hypothesis is supported by empirical evidence. Thus, an experiment involves three steps: (1) the dependent variable is measured; (2) the dependent variable is exposed to the effects of the independent variables; (3) the dependent variable is measured again to see what (if any) change has taken place. Survey Research A survey is a method of contacting individuals in order to obtain responses to a series of items or questions. It is the most widely used of all research methods in sociology. Surveys are particularly useful when we are seeking answers to specific questions, especially when what we want to know cannot be observed directly, such as the political preferences and religious beliefs of individuals, patterns of sexual attraction, or the private lives of married couples. Because surveys typically involve the number of different variables, they (like experiments) are appropriate for conducting explanatory research, in which we attempt to specify the relations among several variables, seeking correlations or even causal links among them. Surveys are also commonly used in descriptive research, in which a sociologist attempts to describe some category of people with regard to one or more variables of interest. Questionnaires A questionnaire is a series of questions or items to which all subjects are asked to respond. In most cases, the respondent is provided with possible responses to each item, so that the process of answering only involves selecting the best response. Analyzing the results of the survey is easy because the possible responses have been limited by the researcher. A questionnaire that provides a set of responses to the subject has a closed-ended format. In some cases, however, a researcher might want to let a subject respond in an entirely free way. In an open-ended format the subjects are able to express their responses however they wish, which allows subtle shades of opinion to come through. Of course, the researcher later has to make sense out of what can be a bewildering array of answers. How to present the questions to subjects is a major decision for every study that uses a questionnaire. Most often, a questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are asked to complete the form and then return it to the researcher, usually also by mail. This technique is called a self-administered survey. When subjects respond to such questionnaires, no researcher is present, of course. In self-administered surveys, it is especially important to pretest the questionnaire with a small group of people before sending it to all subjects in the study. It can help prevent the costly problem of finding out too late – that instructions or questions were not clear to respondents. Interviews Researchers may also use the interview (sometimes called an interview-survey), which is a questionnaire, administered personally to the subject by the researcher. Interviews are especially useful if the items have an open-ended format because the researcher can ask follow-up questions, both to probe a bit more deeply and to clarify the subject’s responses. The researcher must be careful not to influence these responses, however. Sometimes even raising an eyebrow as someone begins to answer a question can be enough to change a response. The advantage of an interview is that a subject is more likely to complete a questionnaire in the presence of a researcher. One disadvantage is that tracking people down is often a difficult job, and more than one attempt may be necessary. Another is that if all subjects do not live in the same area, the costs of conducting research in this way can become extremely high. Task 1. Transcribe the following words and learn their pronunciation: strategy, logic, specific, absolute, typically, hypothesis, series, preference, private, category, analyzing, technique Task 2. Answer the following questions: 1. What is defined by a method? 2. What kind of method is an experiment? 3. What are experiments based on? 4. How would you define a hypothesis? 5. What is the goal of an experiment? 6. What steps does the experiment involve? 7. Where is it better to conduct an experiment? 8. In what way would you characterize a survey? 9. What research may be conducted by means of a survey? 10.What is a questionnaire? 11.What kinds of questionnaires may there be? 12.What is the difference between these two types? 13.What is meant by a self-administered survey? 14.What is an interview? 15.What are the advantages and disadvantages of an interview? 16.Enumerate all methods of sociological research. Which of them do you consider to be the most productive? Give your reasons. Task 3. Characterize each method of sociological research. Task 4. Make up a questionnaire on the topic “Who is the leading personality in the country?” Task 5. Develop the following situations: 1. You are asked to carry out a public opinion poll. What would you start with? 2. What would you recommend to the beginners in carrying out an interview? Task 6. Find in the text English equivalents for: проводить исследования; в абсолютном смысле; лучше или хуже; сильные стороны и слабые; переменная; с учетом; испытуемые; во многих случаях; набор ответов; совершенно свободно; ставящий в тупик; по почте; слишком поздно; преимущество; недостаток Task 7. Arrange the following words into pairs of synonyms: 1. research a) to carry out 2. method b)especially 3. to conduct c) typically 4. to vary d) to select 5. definite e) technique 6. particularly f) certain 7. cause g) to take place 8. to occur h) effect 9. generally 10. aim 11.result 12.to choose 13. important 14. to emerge i) to appear j) investigation k) to differ l) reason m) goal n) significant Task 8. Translate the following sentences into Russian taking into account the meanings of: in relation to; with regard to; with respect to 1. He treated this phenomenon in relation to the extreme environmental conditions. 2. They decided to change the experimental procedure with regard to the new circumstances. 3. They examined the given problem with respect to a new approach. 4. He didn’t know anything at all in relation to her point of view. 5. He was very attentive with regard to her position. 6. With respect to his theory of cognition the issue was of certain interest. 7. He was quite right in relation to his treatment of their method of inquiry. 8. They investigated human attitudes with regard to nonverbal communication. 9. The problem arose only with respect to his way of observation. 10.She made an interesting report in relation to the new data. Task 9. Memorize the following words and word-combinations: appropriate (adj.,v.) explanatory research by mail influence (n.,v.) cause-and-effect relations investigation causal links measure (n., v.) clarify occur closed/open-ended format self-administered survey descriptive research specify (dis)advantage suit (v.) empirical evidence variable employ with regard to UNIT 5. SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND INDIVIDUALITY Because society is an organized system, it is not surprising that social interaction is patterned. Society is, after all, built on countless interactions among individual human beings, and human beings have the capacity to act with almost infinite variety. In the absence of social patterns, people would indeed find social life confusing. Culture provides guidelines for human behavior in the form of values and norms. The assertion that human behavior is socially patterned often provokes some initial resistance. Few human beings readily admit to being part of any kind of system, especially those who live in a culture that prizes individual autonomy. Americans, for instance, tend to emphasize individual responsibility for behavior and highlight the unique elements of their personalities. Behaving in patterned ways, however, does not threaten our individuality. On the contrary, individuality is encouraged by social structure. First, and more generally, our humanity involves much more than physical existence. The great potential of human beings develops only thorough interaction with others. Within social life, distinct personalities emerge as people blend their unique qualities with the values and norms of the large culture from freely expressing ourselves. The social world can be disorienting, even frightening, to people who do not know the behavior guidelines. Without this knowledge, people feel too uncomfortable to express their unique personalities with confidence. To illustrate, you may recall going alone to a party given by people you did not know well. Entering such a setting – and not knowing quite what to expect – is likely to cause some anxiety. At such times you generally feel self-conscious, try to make a favorable impression, and look to others for clues about what sort of behavior is expected of you. Once you understand the behavioral standards that apply to the setting, you are likely to feel comfortable enough to “act like yourself”. Of course, social structure also places some constraints on human behavior. By guiding behavior within culturally approved bounds, established social patterns discourage behavior that is culturally defined as unconventional. Traditional values and norms in the United States and Canada, for example, still reflect the expectation that males will be “masculine” (physically strong, self-assertive, and rational) and the females will be “feminine” (physically weak, self-effacing, and emotional). The structure of society exerts pressure on individuals to fit into one or the other of these categories, ignoring the fact that most people have both “masculine” and “feminine” qualities. In this and many other ways, social structure can limit any individual’s freedom to think and act in ways that may be personally preferred. In addition, the failure to conform the established social patterns may lead to being defined by others as deviant. Task 1. Transcribe the following words and learn their pronunciation: Autonomy, category, comfortable, deviant, disorienting, individuality, rational, structure, unique Task 2. Answer the following questions: 1. Why do we say that social interaction is patterned? 2. What does culture provide? 3. So, according to what is our behavior patterned? 4. What may this assertion provoke/ 5. Through what does the potential of human beings develop? 6. In what cases do people feel uncomfortable? 7. What do you feel in an unfamiliar situation? 8. What does social structure place on human behavior? 9. What is understood by unconventional behavior? 10.What pressure does the structure of society exert on individuals? 11.What can social structure limit? Task 3. State the general idea of each paragraph of the text. Task 4. Express your opinion of the text. Use the following words for the characteristic: important- inconclusive essential – trivial well-presented – muddle interesting – dull valid – inaccurate , wrong Task 5. Summarize the text in 10 sentences. Task 6. Translate the text in writing: 1. Sociology is more than a perspective; it is also a form of investigation that uses the logic of science to learn about the social world. 2. There are three basic requirements of sociological investigation: (1) being aware of the larger social world; (2) using the sociological perspective; and (3) being curious and asking questions about society. 3. The logic of science makes use of concepts and variables. Concepts are abstract ideas that represent elements of society. Concepts that vary in value are called variables. Measurement is the process of determining the value of a variable in any specific case. Sound measurement has the qualities of reliability and validity. 4. The logic of science demands objectivity on the part of a researcher. While issues chosen for investigation may reflect personal interests, personal values and biases must be suspended in conducting the research. 5. The logic of science was developed primarily through studying the natural world. Although science can be used to study social behavior, it has important limitations for doing so. 6. Curiosity and imagination, necessary for all successful research, spring from the human mind and not from the logic of science. Moreover, all human reality is based on patterns of meaning. The process of interpretation is therefore part of all sociological investigation. Task 7. Find in the text “Social Structure and Individuality” English equivalents for: бесчисленные взаимодействия; запутанный; с готовностью; например; напротив; сбивающий с толку; уверенно; окружение (среда); вызывать беспокойство; произвести благоприятное впечатление; принятые культурные рамки; мужские качества; женские качества; ограничить свободу; оказывать давление; кроме того Task 8. Arrange the following words into groups of antonyms: 1. disorganized a) limited 2. chaos b) familiar 3. infinite c) quietly 4. in the presence d) difference 5. lose e) emerge 6. unfamiliar f) organized 7. leave g) in the absence 8. finish h) enter 9. noisily i) arrival 10. departure j) in other words 11. ordinary k) uncomfortable 12. similarity l) system 13. in the same way m) find 14. seldom n)begin 15. disappear o) unique 16. comfortable p) weak 17. strong q) often Task 9. Make up sentences choosing an appropriate variant from the second column and translate them into Russian: 1. The scientist was guided by … . 2. The room was filled with … . 3. His theory is built on … . 4. Human behavior is defined by … . 5. Social interaction is patterned … . 6. His activity is encouraged by … . 7. He is in charge of … . 1) cultural values and norms. 2) the working team. 3) the latest scientific discoveries. 4) the Sociology Research Institute. 5) unfamiliar faces. 6) empirical investigation. 7) as society is an organized system. Task 10. Make up dialogues according to the following situations: 1. An odd person comes to you. He says you were friends years ago. You have never met him before and you suspect his motives. 2. Your friend is acting very strangely. You feel he has a secret worry. Find out what is wrong with him. Note: the following word-combinations may be helpful: To be concerned with, to be interested in, to be guided by, to be encouraged by, to be in charge of, to be filled with, to be prone to, to make use of. Task 11. Translate into English: 1. Для успешного исследования необходимы любознательность и воображение. 2. Процесс интерпретации является частью социологического исследования. 3. Понятия – это абстрактные идеи, представляющие элементы общества. 4. Общество является организованной системой, поэтому социальное взаимодействие шаблонно. 5. Мало кто из людей с готовностью соглашается с тем, что является частью какой-то системы. 6. Для примера можно вспомнить выше участие в мероприятии, которое устраивают малознакомые вам люди. 7. Социальная структура накладывает определенные ограничения на поведение. 8. Неспособность соответствовать установленным моделям может привести к тому, что другие будут воспринимать вас как девианта. Task 12. Memorize the following words and word-combinations: anxiety quality assertion rational conform recall constraint resistance established patterns self-assertive exert pressure self-conscious guideline setting infinite unconventional interaction unique make a favorable impression with confidence UNIT 6. ROLE A second major component of social interaction is role, which refers to patterns of behavior corresponding to a particular status. Ralph Linton described a role as the dynamic expression of a status. A student has a role that involves patterned interaction with professors and other students, and responding to academic demands made by the college. As Linton explained, while individuals occupy a status, they perform a role. Cultural norms suggest how a person who holds a particular status ought to act, which is often called a role expectation. However, real culture only approximates ideal culture; therefore, actual role performance usually varies from role expectation. Like status, a role is relational by directing social behavior toward some other person. The role that corresponds to the status of parent, for example, is ideally defined in terms of responsibilities toward a child. Correspondingly, the role of son or daughter is ideally defined in terms of obligations toward a parent. There are countless other examples of roles paired in this way: the behavior of wives and husbands is performed in relation to each other, as is the behavior of physicians and patients, and of professors and students. Because individuals occupy many statuses at one time – a status set – they perform multiple roles. Yet a person has even more roles than statuses because any one status involves performing several roles in relation to various other people. Robert Merton (1968) introduced the term role set to identify a number of roles attached to a single status. The several roles that are linked to any particular status are not always easily integrated, so an individual can feel pulled in several directions at once. Role strain is defined as incompatibility among the roles corresponding to a single status. When several roles linked to a single status make competing demands a person may not always be able to live up to social expectations. A parent, for example, may have difficulty with simultaneous responsibilities to discipline a child and to be the child’s trusted confident. In addition, roles attached to different statuses often demand incompatible patterns of behavior. The concept of role conflict refers to incompatibility among the roles corresponding to two or more statuses. Single parents often experience conflict in their attempt to be both parents and bread winners – each status demands considerable time and energy. Consequently, the individual may find that both roles cannot be fully performed simultaneously. Task 1. Transcribe the following words and learn their pronunciation: actual, audience, dialogue, discipline, dramaturgical, dynamic, ideal, identify, observed, occupy, patient, physician, professor, status, theatre Task 2. Find the definitions of: 1) Role; 2) Role set; 3) Role strain; 4) Role conflict. Task 3. Answer the following questions: 1. When do the individuals play roles? 2. What is called role expectation? 3. Are role performance and role expectation the same or different notions? 4. Does a person have more roles or statuses? 5. What is the difference between role strain and role conflict? Task 4. Make up disjunctive questions: 1. A role is described as the dynamic expression of a status. 2. Actual role performance usually varies from role expectation. 3. Individuals occupy many statuses at one time. 4. People perform multiple roles. 5. A person has more roles than statuses. 6. Roles attached to different statuses often demand incompatible patterns of behavior. Task 5. Summarize the contents of the text in 10 sentences. Task 6. Identify a number of roles played by: 1) your parents; 2) your close friend; 3) your neighbor; 4) you personally. Task 7. Translate the text in writing: Dramaturgical Analysis: “The Presentation of Self” Dramaturgical analysis is the analysis of social interaction as if it were a theatrical performance. This approach to the study of social interaction is closely associated the work of Erving Goffman (1922–1980). Goffman agreed that people socially construct reality, but emphasized that in doing so they make use of various elements of social structure. Thus, like a director carefully scrutinizing actors on a stage, Goffman sought to identify social structures that are used over and over again. Dramaturgical analysis provides a fresh look at two now familiar concepts. A status is very much like a part in a play, and a role can be compared to a script that supplies dialogue and action to each of the characters. Roles are performed in countless settings that are like a stage in a theatre, and are observed by various audiences. The heart of Goffman’s analysis is the process he called the presentation of the self, which means the ways in which individuals, in various settings, attempt to create specific impression in the minds of others. This process is also called impression management, and contains a number of common elements. Task 8. Answer the questions: 1. What problem does the text deal with? 2. What kind of analysis is dramaturgical analysis? 3. What does “the presentation of self” mean? 4. What is the other name for it? Task 9. Find in the text English equivalents for: соответствующий; приближаться; посредством; одновременно; ряд ролей; вести хозяйство; частичный перечень; несовместимость; следовательно; тесно связан; снова и снова; суть анализа Task 10. Read and translate the following words and their derivatives: interact – interaction– interacting correspond – correspondence – corresponding – correspondingly respond – response – respondent perform – performance expect – expectation – expectancy relate – relation – relational – relative – relatively introduce – introduction – introductory incompatible – incompatibility analyze – analysis – analyst Task 11. Read and translate the following sentences into Russian taking into account the meanings of: in terms of; by means of 1. The problem must be explained in terms of dialectical materialism. 2. By means of this definition he managed to explicate the issue. 3. They pointed to the drawbacks of his theory by means of a new hypothesis. 4. In terms of his viewpoint the scholar solved his complicated problem. 5. He analyzed the phenomenon of creativity in terms of the new approach. 6. By means of his analysis they made a correct conclusion. 7. In terms of his interpretation the issue was properly examined. Task 12. Complete the following sentences and translate them into Russian: 1. Single parents experience role conflict with … . 2. I experienced hardships while … . 3. He experiences true feelings toward … . 4. Recent years experienced great transformations in … . 5. I experience joy when … . 6. They experience troubles in … . Task 13. Memorize the following words and word-combinations: at once particular status closely associated play a role consequently refer to considerable relational correspondingly role conflict demand (n.,v.) role expectation identify role performance incompatibility role strain in terms of simultaneous multiple roles status set UNIT 7. KINDS OF GROUPS We have already found out that sociology, as one of its main objects, studies social institutions and social relations, social bodies and social groups. Sociologists were early concerned with the problem of classifying groups as well. They have proposed many different classificatory schemes for the specific groups. They make up their classifications on the basis of selecting a few properties and define ‘types’ of groups on the principle whether these properties are present or absent. Among the properties most often employed are size (number of members), amount of physical interaction among members, degree of intimacy, level of solidarity, focus of control of group activities and tendency of members to react on one another as individual persons. On the basis of these properties the following kinds of groups have been identified: formal – informal, primary – secondary, small – large, autonomous – dependent, temporary – permanent. Sometimes sociologists make up their classifications of the groups according to their objectives or social settings. These are such groups as work groups, therapy groups, social groups, committees, clubs, gangs, teams, religious groups, and the like. Task 1. Transcribe the following words and learn their pronunciation: atmosphere, attribute, autonomous, classify, cohesiveness, identified, isolate, primary, religious, scheme, specific, therapy Task 2. Answer the following questions: 1. What does sociology study as one of its main objects? 2. What were sociologists early concerned with? 3. They have proposed many different classificatory schemes, haven’t they? 4. What is the basis of their classification? 5. What properties are most often employed? 6. What kinds of groups are identified on the basis of these properties? 7. What other principles do sociologists employ in their classifications? 8. Give examples of formal groups, informal groups, primary groups, secondary groups. Task 3. Agree or disagree with the following: Use: You are right. Sorry, but you are wrong. 1. One of the main objects of the sociologists is to study social bodies and social groups. 2. Sociologists have begun classifying groups quite recently. 3. They make up their group classifications on the basis of a few properties. 4. But sociologists failed to identify these groups. 5. Sometimes they classify groups according to their objectives and social settings. 6. There is no clear-cut difference between primary and secondary groups. 7. Work groups are formal groups. Task 4. Divide the text into three logical parts. Task 5. Characterize in brief: 1. Properties of the groups. 2. Group classifications. Task 6. Read the text and translate it in writing: The Nature of Group Cohesiveness The term ‘group cohesiveness’ is widely discussed by sociologists. Although different sociologists attribute different properties to the term, most agree that group cohesiveness is the degree to which the members of a group desire to remain in the group. Thus, the members of a highly cohesive group, in contrast to the group with a low level of cohesiveness, are more interested in their membership, in group objectives, and activities. Cohesiveness increases the significance of membership for those who belong to the group. Cohesiveness, as the sociologists state, develops a general group atmosphere that determines members’ reaction to the group as a whole. Some groups are businesslike, impersonal and efficient. Others are warm, relaxed and friendly. And still others are full of tension. These differences between groups are the subject of constant sociological research. Task 7. Find in the text synonyms for: to discover, chief, to be interested in, also, to offer, to choose, on the foundation, to use, to isolate, purpose, environment Task 8. Translate the following sentences into Russian: 1. He was greatly concerned with the latest sociological research. 2. In their conversation they concerned a great number of vital problems. 3. His main concern was sociology. 4. They talked much concerning the main points of his report. 5. She was concerned with the problems of social relations at the high level of the society’s development. Task 9. Make up your own sentences with the following word-combinations. Ask your groupmates to translate them: to be concerned with according to on the basis of to react on something to employ something and the like Task 10. Memorize the following words and word-combinations: amount impersonal as a whole increase (v) attribute (adj.,v.) level autonomous membership belong permanent cohesiveness propose degree of intimacy remain dependent select properties efficient temporary find out tension UNIT 8. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROUPS The extent of personal concern for others in social interaction was used by Charles Horton Cooley to draw a distinction between two general types of social groups. The primary group is a social group in which interaction is both personal and enduring. Within primary groups, people have personal and lasting ties which Cooley designated as primary relationships. The members of primary groups share broad dimensions of their lives, generally come to know a great deal about one another, and display genuine concern for another’s welfare. The family is perhaps the most important primary group within any society. Cooley used the term ‘primary’ because social groups of this kind are among the first groups we experience in life and are important in shaping our personal attitudes and behavior. They are also of major importance in shaping our social identity, which is reflected in the fact that the members of any primary group typically think of themselves as ‘we’. The strength of primary relationship gives individuals a considerable sense of comfort and security, which is clearly evident in personal performances. Within the familiar social environment of family or friends, people tend to feel they can be themselves and not worry about being continually evaluated by others. At the office, for example, people are usually self-conscious about their clothing and behavior; at home, they feel free to dress and act more or less as they wish. Members of primary groups certainly provide many personal benefits to one another, including financial as well as emotional support. But people generally perceive the primary group as an end in itself rather than as a means to other ends. Thus, for example, we expect a family member or close friend to help us without pay when we move into a new apartment. At the same time, primary group members usually do expect that such help will be mutual. A contrasting type of social group is the secondary group: a social group in which interaction is impersonal and transitory. Within a secondary group, which usually contains more people than a primary group, individuals share situational ties that are called ‘secondary relationships’. For example, individuals who work together in an office, enroll in the same college course, or belong to a particular political organization usually constitute a secondary group. The opposite of the characteristics that describe primary groups apply to secondary groups. Secondary relationships involve little personal knowledge and weak emotional ties. They vary in duration, but are usually short-term, beginning and ending without particular significance. True, people may work in an office for decades with the same co-workers, but a more typical example of secondary relationships is students in a college course who never see one another after the semester ends. Since secondary groups are limited to a single specific activity or interest, their members have little chance to develop a deep concern for one another’s overall welfare. Secondary groups are less significant than primary groups for personal identity. Although people in a secondary group sometimes think of themselves in terms of ‘we’, the boundary that distinguishes members from nonmembers is usually far less clear than it is in primary groups. Secondary groups are important mostly as a means of achieving certain specific ends. If relationships within primary groups have a personal orientation, those within secondary groups have a goal orientation. In short, while members of a primary group have personal importance on the basis of who they are, members of secondary groups have significance on the basis of what they can do for us. Individuals in primary groups are likely to be sensitive to patterns of social exchange – how benefits received by one member compare to those received by another - although such considerations are not of crucial importance. Within secondary groups, however, exchange is very important. In business transactions, for example, the people involved are keenly aware of what they receive for what they offer. Likewise, the secondary relationships that often characterize neighbors are based on the expectation that any neighborly favor will be reciprocated in the future. The goal orientation of secondary groups diverts the focus of social interaction from personal matters to mutually beneficial cooperation. With the wish to maximize these benefits, members of secondary groups are likely to craft their performances carefully, and usually expect others to do the same. Task 1. Transcribe the following words and practice their pronunciation: although, apply, characteristic, constitute, course, crucial, decade, emotional, intimate, major, situational, transaction, type, typically Task 2. Answer the following questions: 1. What groups do sociologists distinguish? 2. Who was the first to speak on the importance of such distinction? 3. What group is called primary? 4. What is the most important primary group for a child? 5. How are secondary groups organized? 6. What group plays an important part in the formation of personality? Task 3. Contradict the following statements. Start your sentence with: “Quite on the contrary …” 1. Primary groups are organized according to special interests of one kind or another. 2. For a young child the school group constitutes the most important group. 3. Secondary groups depend on face to face association. 4. Secondary groups are more characterized with intimate co-operation than primary groups. 5. It is the secondary group that plays the main part in the early formation of personality. 6. Within the secondary group the child receives the direct training as a member of society. Task 4. Find in the text the facts to prove that: 1. The family constitutes the most important primary group for a child. 2. Membership in a primary group is an important feature of a child’s life. 3. Membership in a secondary group is an important feature of an adult life. Task 5. Divide the text into logical parts and give a heading to each part. Task 6. Find the main idea of each paragraph of the text. Task 7. Comment on the table: Primary Groups and Secondary Groups Quality of relationships Primary group Personal orientation Secondary group Goal orientation Duration of relationships Usually long-term Variable; often short-term Breadth of relationships Broad; usually involving many activities As an end in itself Narrow; usually involving few activities As a means to an end Families; close friendships Co-workers; political organizations Subjective perception of relationships Typical examples Task 8. Characterize in brief: 1. Primary groups. 2. Secondary groups. Task 9. Read the text and translate it in writing: Networks The term social network designates social ties that link people without the intensity of social interaction and common identity of a social group. A social network resembles a social group in that it joins people in social relationships. It differs from a social group because it is not the basis for consistent social interaction and generates little sense of common identity or belonging. Social networks also have no clear boundaries, but expand outward from the individual like a vast web. Social ties within some networks may be relatively primary, as among people who attend college together and have since maintained their friendships by mail and telephone. More commonly, network ties are extremely secondary relationships that involve little personal knowledge. A social network may also contain people we know of or who know of us – but with whom we interact infrequently, if at all. Even though social ties within networks may not be strong, these relationships represent a valuable source that can be used to personal advantage. Task 10. Find in the text “Primary and Secondary Groups” English equivalents for: личный интерес; прочные связи; благополучие; формирование установок; скорее чем; быть ограниченным; граница; достигнуть определенной цели; целевая ориентация: напротив; взаимовыгодное сотрудничество Task 11. Give Russian equivalents for the following English words and wordcombinations: to draw distinction; to designate; to display genuine concern; major importance; sense of comfort and security; personal benefits; mutual; transitory; duration; overall welfare; crucial importance; likewise; to reciprocate Task 12. Make up word-combinations and translate them into Russian: To display genuine concern sympathy self-consciousness To share - troubles concern work duties responsibilities To shape - personal attitudes social identity personality world outlook knowledge To be aware of - reality social respect relationships cultural norms mutually beneficial cooperation Task 13. Translate the following sentences into Russian: 1. Such considerations are not of crucial importance. 2. Personal concern in social interaction is of certain value in drawing a distinction between primary and secondary groups. 3. The family is of major significance in shaping personal attitudes and behavior. 4. The problem of interpersonal relationships is of great interest for the social thinkers. 5. Secondary relationships are of definite importance in the study of social groups of people. 6. Human activity in social community is of deep concern for the sociologists. Task 14. Answer the following questions: 1. What is of great concern for the sociologists in the study of primary groups? 2. What is of chief significance for you in your subject of investigation? 3. What is of major interest for the sociologists dealing with the public opinion poll? Task 15. Memorize the following words and word-combinations: attitude on the basis benefit (n.,v.) personal orientation boundary primary concern (n) reflect crucial secondary genuine sensitive goal orientation shaping limit (n.,v.) short-term long-term transitory mutual welfare SUPPLEMENT HOW TO FIND THE MAIN IDEA OF THE PARAGRAPH (From: Canavan P.J., King M.L. Developing Reading Skills. Boston, 1968) First, remember that in the majority of paragraphs the first sentence expresses the main idea. Second, read the first sentence of the paragraph to understand it so that you’ll be able to relate it to everything else in the paragraph – or for that matter, in the entire selection. Third, skip to the last two or three sentences in the paragraph. Fourth, read these last sentences rapidly. If one says the same thing as the first sentence of the paragraph, you’ll know the first sentence contains the main idea. If one expresses a different idea, you’ll suspect that it and not the first sentence of the paragraph is the topic sentence. And if these last sentences are clearly supporting details for the idea in the first sentence, you’ll know that the first sentence of the paragraph is the key one. When doubt remains, there is the fifth step. Since a paragraph is about something – follow the dominant noun from first to last. Pick it up at or near the beginning and see it through repetitions, as well as through its transformations into pronouns and synonyms. Doing this will lead you to the main idea, or convince you that the first sentence was, after all, the topic sentence. In fact, we offer this procedure not so you will spend a lot of time locating the main idea, but so you can do it quickly. On any occasion, don’t use any more of the steps than necessary, often only the first two will be required. You are really aiming to see the structure or organization of the paragraph. A later aim will be comprehension of all the writer’s material in the paragraph. Then you’ll read more slowly, and more carefully. BRAIN DRAIN: A NATURAL PHENOMENON? Nowadays we are hearing less and less about how detrimental brain drain is to Russia. Have we, like the rest of the world, begun to see it as something natural? The consolation is that these days, leaving the country does not necessarily mean saying good-bye forever. Indeed, in recent years, for every scientist who emigrates for good, there are four who are working on a contract basis. Their lifestyle is like a watchman’s job – one shift returns, and another leaves. They usually receive temporary grants, and travel from country to country. Often they simply go because they can’t continue their research at a contemporary level in Russia, due to the lack of equipment, reactants, or the fact that they just can’t get the information they need. In the meantime, the level of this “internal scientific emigration” is at least twice as high as its “external” counterpart. According to the official emigration statistics, most of our émigré scientists and pedagogical workers ended up in Germany, although those who emigrate to Germany usually end up changing their professions. So, in fact, three quarters of the people who actively work in the field of fundamental sciences are currently employed in the United States and Canada. Others go to Israel and Australia, while recently they’ve also started heading to Latin American countries like Panama, Columbia and Mexico. There are also more exotic destinations like Trinidad, Namibia and Jamaica. They comprise the Russian scientific diaspora. The term diaspora, or “dispersal”, has historically been used to characterize people who are drawn to one another across a distance. The ethnic-Russian scientific diaspora, which is scattered throughout the entire world, was able to become “glued together” very quickly with the help of computer communication systems. First the Russian scientists had mailing lists; now they also have Web sites. One of the most popular mailing list is the INFO-RUSS project, which links over 1,200 subscribers. This form of correspondence is open to everybody. According to recent calculations, approximately 14,000-18,000 scientists from Russia have been working abroad in the field of fundamental sciences. Lately, the processes of intellectual migration have become more stable and have taken on more civilized forms. Today, the West is buying out Russian young Programmers. Fourth-year students studying at faculties of computational mathematics and cybernetics can now receive stipends from foreign organizations. There are representatives of firms recruiting students to work abroad standing by at the famous technical schools. A big-name professor may choose the specific universities he would like to work in, but his students are willing to take any job, even one that has nothing to do with major science. They are being hired to create virtual casinos, and to develop banking services and new telecommunication technologies. But science schools can’t exist without students. And Russia needs to hang on for about another 10 years, until it gets some fresh blood. The only people to count on are the kids who are currently in third and fourth grades. Answer the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. What problem is the article devoted to? Is brain drain a natural phenomenon? What do you think? Why do Russian scientists leave their Motherland? Do all of them leave forever? What countries do they go to? What does the term “diaspora” mean? What specialists are of high demand abroad? What expects Russia in future? Express your personal opinion of brain drain problem. Is it as dismal as it seems to be? FEMALE STATUS ATTAINMENT When the Canadian sociologists analyzed their data on female status attainment, they also found some surprising results. First of all, native-born Canadian women with full-time jobs come from higher status family backgrounds than do their male counterparts. On the average, their fathers have nearly a year more education and hold higher-status occupations. Second, the average native-born Canadian working woman has a Higher-status occupation than do similar males. Finally, the correlations between women’s occupational prestige and their fathers’ education and occupational prestige are much lower than for men. Moreover, these same findings have turned up in American studies; it has now become standard practice to include women in status attainment research. How can these patterns be explained? First of all, women are less likely than men to hold full-time jobs and are especially unlikely to work the lower their work qualifications. For many married women, especially those with young children, low-paying jobs offer no real economic benefits; the costs of working (including childcare) are about equal to the wages paid. In consequence, low-paying, low-status jobs are disproportionally held by males. This fact accounts for women having jobs of higher average prestige. But women are also underrepresented in the highest-prestige jobs. As a result their occupational prestige is limited to a narrow range than that of men, which reduces correlations with background variables. That the average working woman’s father of the average employed male can be understood in the same terms. More qualified women come from more privileged homes; the daughters of the least-educated and lowest-status fathers aren’t in full-time jobs. In fact, the husbands of working women have occupations with higher than average prestige. This is because of a very high correspondence between the occupational prestige of husbands and wives when both are employed full-time. People who marry tend to share very similar levels of education and similar family backgrounds. Indeed, divorce and remarriage contribute to the similarity of husbands and wives in terms of occupational prestige. These findings must not cause us to overlook the fact that women long were excluded from many occupations and are still underrepresented in elite managerial and professional careers. What they do show, however, is that within the special conditions outlined here, female status attainment does not differ much from that of men. SAYING GOOD-BYE TO THIS WORLD Hospice is not a common word for Russia. The modern hospice movement – the provision of homes for terminally ill patients where they spend their last days – was born in Britain. The first among them was an establishment founded in 1967 by Lady Cicely Saunders with her own money. She named it after St. Christopher. A few years ago, on the initiative of Victor Zorza, a British journalist, hospices began to appear in this country. Today there are 22; seven of them are in St. Petersburg and one in Moscow. Whom does the hospice provide care to? Information comes in concerning prospective patients from area outpatient clinics, or from district oncologists or general practitioners. An application must be submitted with a case report and diagnosis. Some patients need palliative institutional treatment. Patients are only admitted here in the following cases. First, those who suffer from an intractable pain syndrome, when no home medication can help. In this event, they are placed under round-the-clock observation and an effective anesthetic plan is selected. Personnel here know that relatives of these patients need temporary relief. Second, special attention is given to lonely people and those who live in communal apartments. For the majority of them this cozy home with a quiet courtyard is a heavenly place, if it is appropriate to say so about a hospice. After spending a week or two here, many do not want to leave, regarding the discharge as an act of cruelty. Although the furnishings and the equipment in this home for the terminally ill show that the Moscow authorities have invested considerable funds in this project, the city budget is still limited. Just like British hospices, Russian ones count on philanthropists. One firm provides writing paper; another provides flowers and someone to look after them; a fourth donated fixtures and fittings for the bathrooms. Unlike its London counterpart, the Moscow hospice has a house call service. Doctors, nurses, a social worker, a lawyer, and a psychologist visit patients in their homes. They provide medical and social assistance, including patient care, apartment cleaning, meal preparation, buying food, assistance in executing legal documents, etc. There are a lot of things to do, and so the service tries to mobilize the patient’s relatives, neighbors, and colleagues. Answer the questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Where was the modern hospice movement born? When was the first hospice established? How many hospices are there in the world today? Whom does the hospice provide care to? In what cases are the patients admitted to the hospice? Do hospices exist on the philanthropic grounds? What specialists take care of the terminally ill patients? Find the information about hospices in your city. EXPLORING THE MOTHER’S AND FATHER’S ROLES What do you think of when you hear the word motherhood? If you are like most people, you associate motherhood with a number of positive images, such as warmth, selflessness, dutifulness and tolerance. And while most women expect that motherhood will be happy and fulfilling, the reality is that motherhood has been accorded relatively low prestige in our society. Mothers rarely receive the appreciation they warrant. When children don’t succeed or they develop problems, our society has had a tendency to attribute the lack of success or the development of problems to a single source – mothers. The role of the mother brings with it benefits as well as limitations. Although motherhood is not enough to fill most women’s entire lives, for most mothers it is one of the most meaningful experiences in their lives. The father’s role has undergone major changes. During the colonial period in America, fathers were primarily responsible for moral teaching. Fathers provided guidance and values, especially through religion. With the Industrial Revolution, the father’s role changed; he gained the responsibility as the breadwinner. By the end of World War II, another role for fathers emerged, that of manhood model. Although being breadwinner and moral guardian continued to be important father roles, attention shifted to the father’s role as a male, especially for sons. The father now is being evaluated in terms of his active, nurturant involvement with his children. Children’s social development can significantly benefit from interaction with a caring, accessible, and dependable father who fosters a sense of trust and confidence. The father’s positive family involvement assumes special importance in developing children’s social competence, because he is often the only male the child encounters on a regular day-to-day basis. Father-mother cooperation and mutual respect helps the child develop positive attitude toward both males and females. It is much easier for working parents to cope with changing family circumstances and day-care issues when the father and mother equitably share child-rearing responsibilities. Mothers feel less stress and have more positive attitudes toward their husbands when they are supportive partners. In earlier times, women considered being a mother a full-time occupation. Currently, there is a tendency to have fewer children, and, as birth control has become common practice, many individuals choose when they will have children and how many children they will raise. The number of one-child families is increasing. Three accompanying changes are that (1) as a result of the increase in working women, there is less maternal investment in the child’s development; (2) men are apt to invest a greater amount of time in fathering; and (3) parental care in the home is often supplemented by institutional care (day care, for example). As more women show an increased interest in developing a career, they are not only marrying later, but also having children later. What are some of the advantages of having children early or late? Some of the advantages of having children early are these: The parents are likely to have more physical energy (for example, they can cope better with such matters as getting up in the middle of the night with infants and waiting up until adolescents come home at night); the mother is likely to have fewer medical problems with pregnancy and childbirth; the parents may be less likely to build up expectations for their children, as do many couples who have waited many years to have children. By contrast, there are also advantages to having children late: The parents will have had more time to consider their goals in life, such as what they want from their family and career roles; the parents will be more mature and will be able to benefit from their life experiences to engage in more competent parenting; and the parents will be better established in their careers and have more income for child-rearing expenses. WOMEN’S PLACE IN THE WORLD What are the political, economic, educational, and psychological conditions of women around the world? Frances Culbertson, president of the Clinical Psychology of Women section of the American Psychological Association, recently summarized these conditions. Women and Politics In politics, too often women are treated like burdens rather than assets. Especially in developing countries, women marry early and have many children quickly, in many cases before their undernourished bodies have an opportunity to mature. In such developing countries, women need greater access to education, work, health care, and especially family planning. Some experts on women’s issues believe that these needs would have a better chance of being met if women were more strongly represented at the decision-making and managerial levels of governments and international organizations. For example, in 1990, less than 10 per cent of the members of national legislatures were women, and for every 100 ministerial-level positions around the world only 5 were filled by women. Women and Employment Women’s work around the world is more limiting and narrower than that of men. Bank tellers and secretaries are most often women. Domestic workers in North America and in Central and South America are most often women. Around the world, jobs defined as women’s work too often carry low pay, low status, and little security. Two authors described many of these circumstances as “job ghettos”. In 1990 the only countries in the world that had maternity leave and guaranteed jobs on the basis of national law were Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Finland, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, Egypt, Syria, Russia, Japan and Thailand. Among the major countries without these provisions were the United States, England, and France. Women and Education The countries with the fewest women being educated are in Africa, where in some areas women are receiving no education at all. Canada, the United States, and Russia have the highest percentage of educated women. In developing countries, 67 percent of the women and 50 percent of the men over the age of 25 have never been to school. In 1985, 80 million more boys than girls were in primary and secondary educational settings around the world. Women and Psychological Issues Women around the world, in every country, experience violence, often by someone close to them. In Canada 10 percent of the women report that they have been beaten in their homes by the man they live with, and in the United States almost 2 million women are beaten in their homes each year. In a recent survey, “The New Woman Ethics Report”, wife abuse was listed as number one among 15 of the most pressing concerns facing society today. Although most countries around the world now have battered women’s shelters, there are some countries where beating women continues to be accepted and expected. In a recent investigation of depression in high-income countries, the women were twice as likely as the men to be diagnosed as being in depression. In the United States, from adolescence through adulthood, females are more likely to be depressed than males. There are many socio-cultural inequities and experiences that have contributed to the greater incidence of depression in females than males. Answer the questions: 1. What place do women hold in politics? Are they satisfied with this position? 2. Jobs are commonly divided into men’s and women’s work. Can you give any reasons for this division? 3. Why are jobs defined as women’s work called “job ghettos”? 4. Do women need better education? Do you think we would live in a better world if women had better education? 5. Why is “wife abuse” a number one of the most pressing concerns facing society today? SOCIAL INEQUALITY Ever since people began to speculate about the nature of human society, their attention has been drawn to the differences that can be easily observed between individuals and groups within any society. The term social inequality describes a condition in which members of a society have unequal amounts of wealth, prestige, or power. Wealth accounts for all of a person’s material assets, including land and other types of property. Prestige refers to the respect with which a person’s occupation is regarded by society. Power is the ability to exercise one’s will over others. All cultures are characterized by some degree of social inequality. When a system is based on a hierarchy of groups having unequal economic rewards and power in a society, sociologists call it stratification. Stratification is one of the most important and complex subjects of sociological investigation because of its great influence on human interactions and institutions. Of course, each of us wants “fair share” of society’s rewards, and we often come into conflict over how these rewards should be divided. Family members argue over who should be given money to buy new clothing or take a vacation; nations go to war over precious resources such as oil or minerals. As a result, sociologists have directed their attention to the implications of stratification in ranking members of a society and the ways in which social inequalities are passed on individuals, groups and generations. Stratification is universal and social scientific research has revealed that inequality exists in all societies. Viewed from the sociological perspective stratification has several forms: 1. Stratification by social class, based on income differences and unequal sources of wealth. American sociologists have worked out the class system of the United States using a five-class model. About 1 percent of Americans are categorized as upper-class, a group limited to the very wealthy. These people form intimate associations with one another in exclusive clubs and social circles. By contrast, the lower class, consisting of approximately 20 percent of Americans, is populated by many of the elderly, as well as single mothers with dependent children and people who cannot find regular work. This class lacks both wealth and income and is too weak politically to exercise significant power. Between these two classes are the upper middle class (10%), the lower middle class (30%), and the working class (40%). The upper middle class is composed of professionals such as doctors, lawyers, and architects. They participate extensively in politics and exercise leadership roles in different associations. The lower middle class includes less wealthy professionals, such as teachers and nurses, owners of small business, clerical workers. The working class are people holding regular manual or blue-collar jobs (as contrasted to white-collar jobs, i.e. employees). Yet, certain members of this class, such as electricians, may have higher incomes than people in the lower middle class. 2. Stratification by race and ethnicity, based on minority groups division. When sociologists define a minority group, they are primarily concerned with the economic and political power, or powerlessness of this group. Thus, a minority group is a subordinate group whose members have significantly less control or power over their own lives than the members of a dominant or majority group have over theirs. However, in certain instances, a group which constitutes a numerical majority can still be a minority group in sociological terms (for example, women). The term “racial group” is used to describe a minority (sometimes a rather dominant) group which is set apart from others by obvious physical differences. Whites, blacks, and Asian Americans are all considered racial groups within the United States. Unlike racial groups, an ethnic group is set apart from others primarily because of its national origin or distinctive cultural patterns, for example, Jews. In most societies, physical differences tend to be more visible than ethnic differences that is why stratification along racial lines is less subject to change than stratification along ethnic lines. But in a biological sense, there are no “pure races” and no “physical” traits that can be used to describe one group to the exclusion of all others. 3. Stratification by gender, based on sexism, i.e. the ideology that one sex is superior to the over. Although numerically a majority, in many respects women fit the definition of a subordinate minority group within contemporary society. Sociological studies indicate that that is a men’s world and there are no societies in it in which women play the decisive role. There are obvious biological differences between the sexes which contribute to the development of gender identity, i.e. the self-concept of a person as being male or female. But many societies have established social distinctions between the sexes which do not result from biological differences. The so called gender roles are defined as expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females. The application of traditional gender roles leads to many forms of differentiation between men and women. Men have traditionally been viewed as the providers of the family, while women have been expected to assume almost total responsibility for child care and household duties. In addition, our culture views many forms of work as “women’s work” or “men’s work”. Both sexes are capable of learning to cook and to type, yet these tasks are usually performed by women. Both men and women are capable of learning to fly airplanes, but this function is generally assigned to males. When one looks at the political structure of contemporary countries, one has to look hard to find many women. However in modern industrial societies there has been an evident change in the application of traditional gender roles to sexes. 4. Stratification by age, based on age differentiation. Some of this age differentiation seems inevitable; it would make little sense to send young children off to war or to expect most older citizens to handle physically demanding tasks such as loading goods at shipyards. Age, like race and gender, is an ascribed status. “Being old” is a master status that sometimes overshadows all others. Moreover, this status is generally viewed in negative terms. Sociological studies report widespread perceptions of older citizens as stubborn, touchy, quarrelsome, bossy, and meddlesome. These studies also show that elderly person receive less respect as they get older. Abuse and neglect of elderly members within the family have received increasing public attention in recent years. The competition in the labor force is not in the elderly favor either; very often younger adults view older workers as “job stealers”. This belief does not only intensify age conflict but leads to age discrimination. And last but not least, the elderly are especially likely to be victims of age segregation. Many have to live in special nursing houses in which they are often at a disadvantage and feel lonely and unhappy. Thus, the subordinate status of the elderly is quite evident in all societies and the elderly fit all the properties of a minority group with one crucial difference: all of us will eventually assume the ascribed status of being an older person and an increasing proportion of any population is composed of elderly citizens. Answer the questions: 1. What is social inequality usually based on? 2. Why is stratification one of the most important and complex subjects of sociological investigation? 3. What forms of stratification exist in all societies? 4. What is stratification by social class? 5. What is the difference between a racial group and an ethnic group? 6. How can different social groups relate to one another in a society? 7. What is stratification by gender based on? 8. How can you prove that ours is a men’s world? 9. What shows that women gain some degree of power at present? 10.What is stratification by age? 11.How can you prove the subordinate status of the elderly in all societies? 12.Are there any problems in being young? 13.Do you feel any social inequality? VOCABULARY A accessible - доступный advantage – преимущество affection - привязанность amount – количество, итог anxiety – беспокойство approach - подход appropriate (adj; n) – соответствующий; присваивать, предназначать as a whole – в целом ascribed status – приписываемый статус assertion - утверждение assess - оценивать assessment - оценка at once - сразу attainment – достижение, приобретение attitude – отношение, позиция attribute (n;v.) – признак, характерная черта; относить, приписывать autonomous - независимый B background - происхождение behavior - поведение belong - принадлежать benefit (n;v) – польза, преимущество; извлекать/приносить пользу be prone to – быть склонным к boundary - граница brain drain – утечка мозгов by mail – по почте by means of – с помощью, посредством C carry out research – проводить исследование cause-and-effect – причина и следствие census - перепись clarify – прояснить, внести ясность close-ended format – закрытый формат closely associated – тесно связанный cohesive – способный к сцеплению, связанный cohesiveness – когезионная способность competition – соревнование, конкуренция concern (n;v) – отношение, интерес; иметь отношение, заниматься conduct research – проводить исследование confirm - подтверждать conform – соответствовать, подчиняться consequently – следовательно, в результате considerable - значительный consolation - утешение constraint – принуждение, скованность correspondingly - соответственно crucial – решающий, ключевой, критический current – текущий, современный D degree of intimacy – степень близости demand (n;v) – требование, спрос; требовать, нуждаться dependent (adj;n) – зависимый, подчиненный; иждивенец descriptive research – описательное исследование develop a theory – развить/разработать теорию diaspora - диаспора differ from – отличаться от disadvantage - недостаток discipline – предмет (дисциплина) discourage - препятствовать distinctive – отличительный, характерный draw conclusions – делать выводы E efficient – эффективный, действенный emerge – появляться, возникать empirical evidence – эмпирическое доказательство employ – использовать, применять, нанимать encourage – способствовать, поддерживать established patterns – установленные модели evaluate – оценивать, определять event – событие, случай exert pressure – оказывать давление experience (n;v) – опыт; испытывать, знать по опыту explanatory research – пояснительное исследование expose – раскрывать, показывать extent - степень F familiar – знакомый, привычный find out – выяснить, обнаружить focus (n) – фокус, центр focus on (v) – сосредоточить внимание на fundamental sciences – фундаментальные науки G gender – род, пол generation – поколение genuine – подлинный, истинный goal orientation – целевая ориентация guideline – принцип, установка guiding principles – руководящие принципы I identify – устанавливать, отождествлять impersonal – безличный, беспристрастный incompatibility - несовместимость increase (n;v) – рост, увеличение; увеличивать, повышать inevitable - неизбежный infinite – бесконечный, безграничный influence (n;v) – влияние, воздействие; влиять interaction - взаимодействие in terms of – с точки зрения investigation – исследование, изучение involve – включать, вовлекать, затрагивать issue (n;v) – проблема, вопрос; издавать, производить item – вопрос, пункт L level - уровень limit (n;v) – предел, граница; ограничивать link (n;v) – звено, связь; соединять, связывать long-term – долгосрочный, длительный M major – основной, главный majority - большинство make a favorable impression – произвести благоприятное впечатление make use of - использовать managerial level – управленческий уровень measure (n;v) - мера, размер; измерять membership – членство, состав minority - меньшинство multiple roles – многочисленные роли mutual - взаимный N nationwide – общегосударственный, всенародный need – нужда, потребность neglect - пренебрегать nurturant - заботливый O obtain – получать, добиваться occur – происходить, случаться on the basis – на основе open-ended format – открытый формат P paragraph - абзац particular status – особый/определенный статус pattern – модель, образец permanent - постоянный personal orientation – личностная ориентация play a role – играть роль point of view – точка зрения polled – опрашиваемый preliterate - необразованный primarily – главным образом, в основном primary – первичный, основной propose – предлагать, полагать public opinion poll – опрос общественного мнения publish – издавать, публиковать Q quality - качество quantitative - количественный quantity - количество questionnaire – анкета, опросный лист R rational – рациональный, рассудительный recall - вспомнить refer to – обращаться к , ссылаться на refine – совершенствовать, улучшать reflect – отражать, размышлять reject – отвергать, отказывать(ся) relational – реляционный, относительный, родственный relationship – связь, отношение remain - оставаться resistance - сопротивление respondent – респондент, ответчик response - ответ role conflict – ролевой конфликт role performance – ролевое представление role strain – ролевое напряжение round-the-clock - круглосуточный S script - сценарий secondary – вторичный, второстепенный select properties – выбирать свойства self-administered survey – самостоятельное исследование/обследование self-assertive – напористый, самоуверенный self-concept - самооценка self-conscious - застенчивый sensitive – чувствительный, восприимчивый setting – окружение (среда) shaping - формирование shift (v.) – смещать, менять направление short-term – краткосрочный, кратковременный simultaneous – одновременный, синхронный simultaneously - одновременно society - общество specify – указывать, определять, устанавливать statement - утверждение status set – статус-набор stratification - расслоение subject (n;v) – тема, предмет, вопрос; подчинять, представлять subject matter - предмет suggest - предлагать suit (v.) – соответствовать, подходить survey (n;v) – исследование, обзор; рассматривать, исследовать T technique – методика, способ, прием, техника temporary - временный tension – напряжение, напряженность terminally - неизлечимо through comparison – через/путем сравнения tools of research –исследовательские инструменты transitory – преходящий, мимолетный U unconventional - нетрадиционный under supervision – под наблюдением/руководством unique – необыкновенный, уникальный urge (n;v) – импульс, толчок; побуждать, настаивать на V variable - переменная variety – разнообразие, множество vary - изменяться verbally - устно W welfare – благополучие, достаток with confidence – с уверенностью with regard to – в отнощении, что касается SOURCES 1. About sociology in English. О социологии: Практикум по английскому языку. – 2-е изд. – М.: Флинта: Наука, 2001.- 112 с. 2. Донченко Е.Н. Английский для психологов и социологов. Серия «Учебники, учебные пособия». Ростов н/Д: «Феникс», 2002. – 512 с. 3. Мифтахова Н.Х., Муртазина Э.М. Профессиональный английский язык социального работника: учеб. пос. в 2-х частях. Часть 1 / Н.Х.Мифтахова, Э.М.Муртазина. – 2-е издание, исправленное и дополненное. – М.: КДУ, 2011. – 184 с.: табл., ил. 4. Learn to Read Science/ Курс английского языка для аспирантов: Учебное пособие / Руков. Н.И. Шахова. – 5-е изд., исп. – М.: Флинта: Наука, 2004. – 368с. CONTENTS Unit 1. What Is Sociology? ………………………………………………………….3 Unit 2. Social barometer ……………………………………………………………7 Unit 3. Sociological Theory ………………………………………………………..10 Unit 4. The Methods of Sociological Research …………………………………..14 Unit 5. Social Structure and Individuality ……………………………………….18 Unit 6. Role …………………………………………………………………………23 Unit 7. Kinds of Groups ……………………………………………………….......27 Unit 8. Primary and Secondary Groups …………………………………………30 Supplement How to Find the Main Idea of the Paragraph? …………………………………..35 Brain Drain: a Natural Phenomenon? ……………………………………………35 Female Status Attainment …………………………………………………………37 Saying Good-bye to the World ……………………………………………………38 Exploring the Mother’s and Father’s Roles ……………………………………...39 Women’s Place in the World …………………………………………………….. 41 Social Inequality …………………………………………………………………...42 Vocabulary …………………………………………………………………………46 Sources ……………………………………………………………………………...51