Download Task 9. Memorize the following words and word-combinations

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РФ
Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение
«АЛТАЙСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»
WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY?
Учебное пособие по английскому языку
Барнаул 2012
УДК 811.112=20(075.8)
What Is Sociology? [Текст]: учебное пособие по английскому языку для
студентов факультета социологии Алтайского государственного университета .
Барнаул: АлтГУ, 2012. – 51 c.
Составитель: доцент кафедры иностранных языков гуманитарных факультетов
Кузикова Т.Г.
Рецензент: к.ф.н., доцент кафедры иностранных языков гуманитарных
факультетов Беляева В.А.
Учебное пособие “What Is Sociology?” предназначено для развития навыков
чтения, говорения и интерпретации текстов по специальности для студентовсоциологов. Каждый раздел содержит множество заданий, позволяющих
развивать и совершенствовать устную речь, а также активизировать
профессионально-ориентированную лексику, что поможет студентам читать и
переводить оригинальную литературу по специальности и вести беседы на
темы, предусмотренные программой.
Данное пособие рассчитано на аудиторную и самостоятельную работу
студентов 2 курса дневного и заочного отделений всех специальностей
факультета социологии.
UNIT1. WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY?
The name of sociology was first suggested in the 1830s by the French philosopher
Auguste Comte, but for many years it remained only a suggestion. Comte urged
others to study philosophy.
It was not until late in the19th century that we can identify people who called
themselves sociologists and whose work contributed to the development of the field.
Among these were Herbert Spencer in England who published the first of threevolume “Principles of Sociology” in 1876 and Ferdinand Tonnies in Germany. A
decade later, Emile Durkheim published “Suicide”.
The first sociologists studied moral statistics. Their work proved so popular
that it led to the rapid expansion of census questions. However, sociology as an
academic speciality was imported from Germany. The progressive uncovering of
social causes of individual behavior – in response to the questions raised by moral
statistics – produced the field called sociology.
Sociology is one of the related fields known as the social sciences. They share
the same subject matter: human behavior. But sociology is the study of social
relations, and its primary subject matter is the group, not the individual.
There is a close connection between sociology and other disciplines such as
psychology, economy, anthropology, criminology, political science, and history. But
sociologists differ from psychologists because they are not concerned exclusively
with the individual; they are interested in what goes on between people. They differ
from economists by being less interested in commercial exchanges; they are
interested in the exchange of intangibles such as love and affection. Sociologists
differ from anthropologists primarily because the latter specialize in the study of
preliterate and primitive human groups, while sociologists are interested in modern
industrial societies. Criminologists specialize in illegal behavior, while sociologists
are concerned with the whole range of human behavior. Similarly, political scientists
focus on political organization and activity, while sociologists survey all social
organizations. Finally, sociologists share with historians an interest in the past but are
equally interested in the present and the future.
Sociology is a broader discipline than the other social sciences. In a sense, the
purpose of sociologists is, in general, to find the connections that unite various social
sciences into a comprehensive, integrated science of society.
Sociology consists of two major fields of knowledge: micro sociology and
macro sociology. Micro sociologists study the patterns and processes of face-to-face
interaction between humans. Macro sociologists attempt to explain the fundamental
patterns and processes of large-scale social relations. They concentrate on larger
groups, even on whole societies.
Sociologists attempt to use research to discover if certain statements about
social life are correct. The basic tools of their research are tests, questionnaires,
interviews, surveys, and public opinion polls.
Task 1. Transcribe the following words and learn their pronunciation:
anthropology, identify, illegal, macro, micro, philosophy, primary, process,
psychology, science, social, society, sociologist, sociology, speciality, specialize
Task 2. Answer the following questions:
1. Who was the first to suggest the name sociology?
2. Who were the first sociologists?
3. What were they mainly interested in?
4. What country was sociology as an academic discipline imported from?
5. What is the subject matter of sociology?
6. What other disciplines is sociology closely connected with?
7. What is the goal of sociologists?
8. What fields of knowledge does sociology consist of?
9. What do micro sociologists study?
10.What do macro sociologists attempt to explain?
11.What are the basic tools of sociological research?
Task 3. Explain the difference concerning the subject matter between:
a) sociology and economy;
b) sociology and criminology;
c) sociology and history;
d) sociology and psychology;
e) sociology and anthropology.
Task 4. Read the text and translate it in writing:
Sociology, as a science, takes its point of departure from the materialist world
outlook in its application to the solution of social problems. In this application
sociology demonstrates its scientific character as it employs some guiding principles
in the understanding of social affairs.
They are:
1) The society in its development is regulated by objective laws discovered by
science.
2) Views and institutions, political, ideological and cultural developments arise
on the basis of the development of the material life of society.
3) Ideas and institutions, which thus arise on the basis of conditions of material
life, play an active role in the development of material life.
So, sociology studies regularities in social processes, connections between
social events, which are independent of our consciousness and will, social
relations and social institutions. Sociology is concerned, as well, with
circumstances which give rise to the formation of aims and intentions in people’s
minds. Different people have different aims. This does not mean that individual
psychologies differ, but it expresses the fact that people find themselves in
different circumstances, with different interests arising from those circumstances.
Task 5. Speak on:
1. The origin of sociology.
2. Its subject matter.
3. Differences and similarities of sociology and other social sciences.
4. Major fields of sociology.
5. Basic sociological research methods.
6. The guiding principles of sociology.
Task 6. Translate the following words and word-combinations into Russian:
It was not until late in the 19th century; three-volume; rapid expansion; census
questions; in response to the questions; share the same subject matter; exchange of
intangibles; preliterate and primitive human groups; similarly; are equally interested
in; large-scale social relations
Task 7. Find in the text English “What is sociology?” equivalents for:
Это оставалось только предложением; спустя десятилетие; оказалась
настолько популярной; одна из смежных областей; тесная связь; главный
предмет; противозаконное поведение; весь спектр человеческого поведения; в
то время как социологи занимаются; в определенном смысле; всеобъемлющая
комплексная наука об обществе; основные области знаний; фундаментальные
модели; основные инструменты исследования
Task 8. Translate the following sentences into Russian:
1. He was greatly concerned with the latest sociological research.
2. In their conversation they concerned a great number of vital problems.
3. His main concern was sociology.
4. They talked much concerning the main points of his report.
5. She was concerned with the problems of social relations at the high level of the
society’s development.
Task 9. Memorize the following words and word-combinations:
behavior
primarily
census
public opinion poll
concern (n., v.)
questionnaire
differ from
society
discipline
statement
focus on (v.)
subject matter
guiding principles
suggest
major
survey (n., v.)
pattern
tools of research
preliterate
urge (n., v.)
UNIT 2. SOCIAL BAROMETER
A great part of sociological research consists of quantitative experimenting.
The system of techniques used for that purpose is that of statistical methods. These
methods are necessary to examine the data, analyze them and draw certain
conclusions. The results of the sociological survey are published then.
Sociological research is usually conducted by a working group under the
supervision of the leading sociologists of the All-Russian Center for the Study of
Public Opinion. The public opinion poll is a criterion of the current social life within
the society. It is the so-called social barometer of the country. In fact our fast-moving
life makes it necessary to analyze things. So it is useful to examine the results of
sociological surveys.
The public opinion poll is carried out nationwide or in some definite regions,
cities, establishments. It may be verbal in the form of an interview. But more often
the opinion poll is conducted by means of tests or questionnaires. The questionnaires
contain some items to be chosen by the subjects. In other cases the questionnaires
present a set of questions to be answered by the respondents in their individual way.
The polled may express their own opinions verbally or in writing. The assessments
may be optimistic, pessimistic, dramatic, positive, or negative. They expose and
reassess our ideals and values.
The polls are very popular nowadays throughout the country. In general, they
are directed to assess current social and political situation, political figures, the most
important events, economic perspectives, our losses and gains, and so on. All data are
given in percentages.
Task 1. Transcribe the following words and learn their pronunciation:
analyze, barometer, criterion, examine, figure, ideal, individual, interview,
percentage, perspective, respondent, result, situation, technique
Task 2. Answer the following questions:
1. What methods are the basic tools in every sociological research?
2. Who conducts sociological research?
3. What is considered to be a social barometer?
4. Where is the public opinion poll carried out?
5. In what form may it be conducted?
6. What are the questionnaires like?
7. How do the polled express their opinions?
8. What do assessments expose?
9. What is the aim of the polls?
10.How are all data given?
Task 3. Divide the text into four logical parts.
Task 4. Speak on the main points of the text.
Task 5. Try to make up your own questionnaire and offer it to your groupmates.
Task 6 . Look through the fresh newspapers and find there some information on the
latest polls. Be ready to comment on it.
Task 7. Translate the following words and word-combinations into Russian:
Sociological research, sociological survey, public opinion, public opinion poll, to
conduct a poll, to carry out a poll, the polled, respondent, to assess, to reassess,
assessment
Task 8. Find in the text English equivalents for:
система методов; с этой целью; рабочая группа; современная общественная
жизнь; так называемый; по всей стране; в других случаях; ряд вопросов;
пересмотреть идеалы; потери и приобретения; и так далее; в процентах; в наше
время
Task 9. Fill in the blanks with the necessary words: to conduct, conclusions, to
examine, poll, to assess, assessments
1. Statistical methods are used to analyze the data and draw … .
2. The opinion … is carried out nationwide.
3. Leading sociologists … a poll all over the country.
4. The polls are directed to … social and political situation.
5. The respondents give their … verbally or in writing.
6. Sociologists carefully … the obtained data.
Task 10. Complete the following sentences:
1. The public opinion poll is a criterion of … .
2. It is the so-called … .
3. The poll is carried out … .
4. It may be verbal in the form of … .
5. The opinion poll is conducted by means of … .
6. The polls are directed to … .
7. The poll data are given in ….
8. The assessments may be … .
9. The polls are very popular nowadays … .
10.The questionnaires contain some items … .
Task 11. Translate the text in writing:
The foundation of Comte’s work was an attempt to apply scientific methods to the
study of society and to the practical task of social reform. In his own lifetime,
scientific thinking was becoming more sophisticated and influential than ever before,
increasing human knowledge about the physical world. Why not, Comte reasoned,
apply the same scientific methods to understanding the social world? In Comte’s
view, sociology should attempt to determine the laws that govern human social
behavior, in much the same way that natural laws govern the operation of the
physical world. Comte’s sociological study was concerned with what he called social
statics - how society maintains itself as a cohesive system of many interrelated parts
– and social dynamics – how society changes in an orderly way according to specific
social laws.
Task 12. Memorize the following words and word-combinations:
assess
nationwide
assessment
obtain
by means of
publish
carry out research
quantitative
conduct research
respondent
current
subject (n., v.)
draw conclusions
technique
event
the polled
expose
under the supervision
item
verbally
UNIT 3. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY
The discipline of sociology involves more than a distinctive point of view. The
sociological perspective illuminates new facts in countless familiar situations; but
linking specific observations together in a meaningful way involves another element
of the discipline, theory. In the simplest terms, a theory is an explanation of the
relationship between two or more specific facts. To illustrate the use of theory in
sociology, recall Emile Durkheim’s study of suicide. Durkheim attempted to explain
why some categories of people (males, Protestants, the wealthy, and the unmarried)
have higher suicide rates than do others (females, Catholics, the poor, and the
married). To do so, he linked one set of facts – suicide rates – to another set of facts –
the level of social integration characteristic of these various categories of people.
Through systematic comparisons, Durkheim was able to develop a theory of suicide,
namely, that people with low social integration are more prone to take their own
lives.
To provide another illustration, how might we explain the sociological observation
that college science courses in the United States typically contain more men than
women? One theoretical approach would suggest that the sciences are more attractive
to males than to females; perhaps males simply have a greater innate interest in
science. Another possibility is that American society encourages male to develop an
interest in science while simultaneously discouraging this interest in females. A third
theoretical approach might suggest that the educational system has some formal
policy that limits the enrollment of women in science courses.
As this example suggests, there may be more than one theoretical explanation for
any particular issue. Therefore, the ability to link facts together into a meaningful
theory does not in itself mean that theory is correct. In order to evaluate contrasting
theories, sociologists make use of various methods of scientific research.
As sociologists use these scientific methods to gather more and more information,
they are able to confirm some theories while rejecting or modifying others. In the
early decades of the 20th century, several sociologists interested in the rapid growth of
cities developed theories that linked city living to distinctive patterns of human
behavior such as pronounced impersonality and even mental illness. However,
research completed during subsequent decades has found that living in a large city
does not necessarily result in social isolation, nor does it diminish mental health.
Within any discipline therefore, theory is never static, because sociologists are
continually carrying out research, sociological theory is always being refined.
Task 1. Transcribe the words and learn their pronunciation:
category, characteristic, contrasting, course, illuminate, modify, observation,
policy, static, suicide, systematic, theoretical, theory
Task 2. Answer the following questions:
1. What is meant by theory?
2. What did Durkheim base his research on?
3. What is the essence of his suicide theory?
4. What sociological observation was made among college science students?
5. What did sociologists make use of to evaluate contrasting theories?
6. Is theory static or changeable within any discipline?
7. Who are more prone to science study according to the sociological observation
in the United States? Do you agree with this point of view?
Task 3. Find in the text English equivalents for:
точка зрения; бесчисленный; набор фактов; а именно; более склонны;
одновременно; любой частный вопрос; следовательно; для того, чтобы;
извлекать пользу; подтверждать теории; внутри; последующие десятилетия;
характерные модели человеческого поведения; резко выраженная безличность;
проводить исследование
Task 4. Find in the text antonyms for:
indefinite, unfamiliar, meaningless, complex, to forget, similar, to be unable,
repulsive, learned, to discourage, wrong, to accept a theory, late, slow, personality, to
start
Task 5. Divide the text into logical parts and make up a plan of the text.
Task 6. Speak on the text.
Task 7. Translate the text in writing:
The gradual development of scientific thought in Europe was one important
foundation of sociology. But something more was involved: revolutionary change in
European society itself. The increasing importance of science is but one dimension of
the modernization of Europe. Social change, of course, is continuous but European
societies experienced particularly rapid transformations during the 17 th and 18th
centuries. In the midst of intense social change that reached crisis proportions, people
were less likely to take society for granted. Indeed, as the social ground shook under
their feet, they focused more and more on society, which stimulated the emergence of
the sociological perspective.
Three dimensions of social change occurred in that era, each truly revolutionary in
its own right. First, various technological innovations in eighteenth-century Europe
led to the appearance of factories, initially in England. This new way of producing
material goods soon gave rise to an industrial economy. Second, factories located
within cities drew millions of people from the countryside, where agriculture had
been traditional livelihood. As a result, the growth of industry was accompanied by
the explosive growth of cities. Third, the development of the economy and the growth
of cities were linked to changes in political ideas.
Task 8. Fill in the blanks with the following words in the necessary forms and
translate the sentences into Russian:
to be influenced by, to encourage, to be interested in, to be concerned with, to
make use of, to give rise to, to be prone to, to carry out research
1. People … greatly … … society since the beginning of human history.
2. Systematic studies of the society carried out by the social thinkers … … …
appearing a new science – sociology.
3. They are planning … … … … on the basis of a new scientific approach.
4. The scholars … primarily … … the investigation of the sociological
perspective.
5. Early sociologists … strongly … … Comte’s ideas.
6. The scholars … constant … … his ways of interpreting and analyzing new
phenomena.
7. They always … scientific methods of investigation in any particular
observation.
8. He … … … take part in the discussion concerning the operation of social laws
within the society.
Task 9. Read and translate the following sentences taking into account different
meanings of the word ‘experience’:
1. He experienced great hardships in the life, but in spite of that he continued
his work in the field of sociological research.
2. They considered him to be a very experienced scholar as far as the
sociological perspective was concerned.
3. His experience was great and he readily encouraged such innovative
strivings.
4. They experienced true feelings of friendship to each other and this devotion
lasted all their life.
5. The situation was out of being ordinary and he understood her experiences
quite well.
6. Recent decades of our century experienced tremendous transformations in
all spheres of the life.
7. He described the situation in such a way as if he had experienced it himself.
8. His experience in this field was quite evident and nobody doubted it.
Task 10. Memorize the following words and word-combinations:
be prone to
issue (n., v.)
confirm
level
develop a theory
link (n., v.)
discourage
make use of
distinctive
point of view
encourage
refine
evaluate
reject
experience (n., v.)
relationship
familiar
simultaneously
involve
through comparisons
UNIT 4. METHODS OF SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Four research methods are widely employed in sociological investigation. A
method is a strategy for carrying out research in a systematic way – comparable to a
blueprint used in building or a recipe in cooking. The four methods discussed here are
all expressions of the logic science. They differ, however, in the specific ways in
which observations are made and in the kinds of questions they help us answer. No
method is in an absolute sense better or worse than any other; each has characteristic
strengths and weaknesses so that any method is particularly suited for certain kinds of
research.
Experiments
The logic of science is clearly expressed in the experiment – a method that seeks
to specify a cause-and-effect relationship among variables. Experimental research, in
other words, is explanatory in character, attempting to show what factors in the social
world cause change to occur in other factors. Experiments are typically based on the
text of a specific hypothesis – a theoretical statement of a relationship between
independent and dependent variables. The goal of an experiment is to find out
whether or not the hypothesis is supported by empirical evidence. Thus, an
experiment involves three steps: (1) the dependent variable is measured; (2) the
dependent variable is exposed to the effects of the independent variables; (3) the
dependent variable is measured again to see what (if any) change has taken place.
Survey Research
A survey is a method of contacting individuals in order to obtain responses to a
series of items or questions. It is the most widely used of all research methods in
sociology. Surveys are particularly useful when we are seeking answers to specific
questions, especially when what we want to know cannot be observed directly, such
as the political preferences and religious beliefs of individuals, patterns of sexual
attraction, or the private lives of married couples. Because surveys typically involve
the number of different variables, they (like experiments) are appropriate for
conducting explanatory research, in which we attempt to specify the relations among
several variables, seeking correlations or even causal links among them. Surveys are
also commonly used in descriptive research, in which a sociologist attempts to
describe some category of people with regard to one or more variables of interest.
Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a series of questions or items to which all subjects are asked to
respond. In most cases, the respondent is provided with possible responses to each
item, so that the process of answering only involves selecting the best response.
Analyzing the results of the survey is easy because the possible responses have been
limited by the researcher. A questionnaire that provides a set of responses to the
subject has a closed-ended format.
In some cases, however, a researcher might want to let a subject respond in an
entirely free way. In an open-ended format the subjects are able to express their
responses however they wish, which allows subtle shades of opinion to come
through. Of course, the researcher later has to make sense out of what can be a
bewildering array of answers.
How to present the questions to subjects is a major decision for every study that
uses a questionnaire. Most often, a questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are
asked to complete the form and then return it to the researcher, usually also by mail.
This technique is called a self-administered survey. When subjects respond to such
questionnaires, no researcher is present, of course. In self-administered surveys, it is
especially important to pretest the questionnaire with a small group of people before
sending it to all subjects in the study. It can help prevent the costly problem of
finding out too late – that instructions or questions were not clear to respondents.
Interviews
Researchers may also use the interview (sometimes called an interview-survey),
which is a questionnaire, administered personally to the subject by the researcher.
Interviews are especially useful if the items have an open-ended format because the
researcher can ask follow-up questions, both to probe a bit more deeply and to clarify
the subject’s responses. The researcher must be careful not to influence these
responses, however. Sometimes even raising an eyebrow as someone begins to
answer a question can be enough to change a response. The advantage of an interview
is that a subject is more likely to complete a questionnaire in the presence of a
researcher. One disadvantage is that tracking people down is often a difficult job, and
more than one attempt may be necessary. Another is that if all subjects do not live in
the same area, the costs of conducting research in this way can become extremely
high.
Task 1. Transcribe the following words and learn their pronunciation:
strategy, logic, specific, absolute, typically, hypothesis, series, preference, private,
category, analyzing, technique
Task 2. Answer the following questions:
1. What is defined by a method?
2. What kind of method is an experiment?
3. What are experiments based on?
4. How would you define a hypothesis?
5. What is the goal of an experiment?
6. What steps does the experiment involve?
7. Where is it better to conduct an experiment?
8. In what way would you characterize a survey?
9. What research may be conducted by means of a survey?
10.What is a questionnaire?
11.What kinds of questionnaires may there be?
12.What is the difference between these two types?
13.What is meant by a self-administered survey?
14.What is an interview?
15.What are the advantages and disadvantages of an interview?
16.Enumerate all methods of sociological research. Which of them do you
consider to be the most productive? Give your reasons.
Task 3. Characterize each method of sociological research.
Task 4. Make up a questionnaire on the topic “Who is the leading personality in the
country?”
Task 5. Develop the following situations:
1. You are asked to carry out a public opinion poll. What would you start with?
2. What would you recommend to the beginners in carrying out an interview?
Task 6. Find in the text English equivalents for:
проводить исследования; в абсолютном смысле; лучше или хуже; сильные
стороны и слабые; переменная; с учетом; испытуемые; во многих случаях;
набор ответов; совершенно свободно; ставящий в тупик; по почте; слишком
поздно; преимущество; недостаток
Task 7. Arrange the following words into pairs of synonyms:
1. research
a) to carry out
2. method
b)especially
3. to conduct
c) typically
4. to vary
d) to select
5. definite
e) technique
6. particularly
f) certain
7. cause
g) to take place
8. to occur
h) effect
9. generally
10. aim
11.result
12.to choose
13. important
14. to emerge
i) to appear
j) investigation
k) to differ
l) reason
m) goal
n) significant
Task 8. Translate the following sentences into Russian taking into account the
meanings of:
in relation to; with regard to; with respect to
1. He treated this phenomenon in relation to the extreme environmental
conditions.
2. They decided to change the experimental procedure with regard to the new
circumstances.
3. They examined the given problem with respect to a new approach.
4. He didn’t know anything at all in relation to her point of view.
5. He was very attentive with regard to her position.
6. With respect to his theory of cognition the issue was of certain interest.
7. He was quite right in relation to his treatment of their method of inquiry.
8. They investigated human attitudes with regard to nonverbal communication.
9. The problem arose only with respect to his way of observation.
10.She made an interesting report in relation to the new data.
Task 9. Memorize the following words and word-combinations:
appropriate (adj.,v.)
explanatory research
by mail
influence (n.,v.)
cause-and-effect relations
investigation
causal links
measure (n., v.)
clarify
occur
closed/open-ended format
self-administered survey
descriptive research
specify
(dis)advantage
suit (v.)
empirical evidence
variable
employ
with regard to
UNIT 5. SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND INDIVIDUALITY
Because society is an organized system, it is not surprising that social interaction
is patterned. Society is, after all, built on countless interactions among individual
human beings, and human beings have the capacity to act with almost infinite variety.
In the absence of social patterns, people would indeed find social life confusing.
Culture provides guidelines for human behavior in the form of values and norms.
The assertion that human behavior is socially patterned often provokes some
initial resistance. Few human beings readily admit to being part of any kind of
system, especially those who live in a culture that prizes individual autonomy.
Americans, for instance, tend to emphasize individual responsibility for behavior and
highlight the unique elements of their personalities. Behaving in patterned ways,
however, does not threaten our individuality. On the contrary, individuality is
encouraged by social structure.
First, and more generally, our humanity involves much more than physical
existence. The great potential of human beings develops only thorough interaction
with others. Within social life, distinct personalities emerge as people blend their
unique qualities with the values and norms of the large culture from freely expressing
ourselves. The social world can be disorienting, even frightening, to people who do
not know the behavior guidelines. Without this knowledge, people feel too
uncomfortable to express their unique personalities with confidence.
To illustrate, you may recall going alone to a party given by people you did not
know well. Entering such a setting – and not knowing quite what to expect – is likely
to cause some anxiety. At such times you generally feel self-conscious, try to make a
favorable impression, and look to others for clues about what sort of behavior is
expected of you. Once you understand the behavioral standards that apply to the
setting, you are likely to feel comfortable enough to “act like yourself”.
Of course, social structure also places some constraints on human behavior. By
guiding behavior within culturally approved bounds, established social patterns
discourage behavior that is culturally defined as unconventional. Traditional values
and norms in the United States and Canada, for example, still reflect the expectation
that males will be “masculine” (physically strong, self-assertive, and rational) and the
females will be “feminine” (physically weak, self-effacing, and emotional). The
structure of society exerts pressure on individuals to fit into one or the other of these
categories, ignoring the fact that most people have both “masculine” and “feminine”
qualities. In this and many other ways, social structure can limit any individual’s
freedom to think and act in ways that may be personally preferred. In addition, the
failure to conform the established social patterns may lead to being defined by others
as deviant.
Task 1. Transcribe the following words and learn their pronunciation:
Autonomy, category, comfortable, deviant, disorienting, individuality, rational,
structure, unique
Task 2. Answer the following questions:
1. Why do we say that social interaction is patterned?
2. What does culture provide?
3. So, according to what is our behavior patterned?
4. What may this assertion provoke/
5. Through what does the potential of human beings develop?
6. In what cases do people feel uncomfortable?
7. What do you feel in an unfamiliar situation?
8. What does social structure place on human behavior?
9. What is understood by unconventional behavior?
10.What pressure does the structure of society exert on individuals?
11.What can social structure limit?
Task 3. State the general idea of each paragraph of the text.
Task 4. Express your opinion of the text. Use the following words for the
characteristic:
important- inconclusive
essential – trivial
well-presented – muddle
interesting – dull
valid – inaccurate , wrong
Task 5. Summarize the text in 10 sentences.
Task 6. Translate the text in writing:
1. Sociology is more than a perspective; it is also a form of investigation that uses
the logic of science to learn about the social world.
2. There are three basic requirements of sociological investigation: (1) being
aware of the larger social world; (2) using the sociological perspective; and (3)
being curious and asking questions about society.
3. The logic of science makes use of concepts and variables. Concepts are
abstract ideas that represent elements of society. Concepts that vary in value
are called variables. Measurement is the process of determining the value of a
variable in any specific case. Sound measurement has the qualities of reliability
and validity.
4. The logic of science demands objectivity on the part of a researcher. While
issues chosen for investigation may reflect personal interests, personal values
and biases must be suspended in conducting the research.
5. The logic of science was developed primarily through studying the natural
world. Although science can be used to study social behavior, it has important
limitations for doing so.
6. Curiosity and imagination, necessary for all successful research, spring from
the human mind and not from the logic of science. Moreover, all human reality
is based on patterns of meaning. The process of interpretation is therefore part
of all sociological investigation.
Task 7. Find in the text “Social Structure and Individuality” English equivalents
for:
бесчисленные взаимодействия; запутанный; с готовностью; например;
напротив; сбивающий с толку; уверенно; окружение (среда); вызывать
беспокойство; произвести благоприятное впечатление; принятые культурные
рамки; мужские качества; женские качества; ограничить свободу; оказывать
давление; кроме того
Task 8. Arrange the following words into groups of antonyms:
1. disorganized
a) limited
2. chaos
b) familiar
3. infinite
c) quietly
4. in the presence
d) difference
5. lose
e) emerge
6. unfamiliar
f) organized
7. leave
g) in the absence
8. finish
h) enter
9. noisily
i) arrival
10. departure
j) in other words
11. ordinary
k) uncomfortable
12. similarity
l) system
13. in the same way
m) find
14. seldom
n)begin
15. disappear
o) unique
16. comfortable
p) weak
17. strong
q) often
Task 9. Make up sentences choosing an appropriate variant from the second column
and translate them into Russian:
1. The scientist was guided by … .
2. The room was filled with … .
3. His theory is built on … .
4. Human behavior is defined by … .
5. Social interaction is patterned … .
6. His activity is encouraged by … .
7. He is in charge of … .
1) cultural values and norms.
2) the working team.
3) the latest scientific discoveries.
4) the Sociology Research Institute.
5) unfamiliar faces.
6) empirical investigation.
7) as society is an organized system.
Task 10. Make up dialogues according to the following situations:
1. An odd person comes to you. He says you were friends years ago. You have
never met him before and you suspect his motives.
2. Your friend is acting very strangely. You feel he has a secret worry. Find out
what is wrong with him.
Note: the following word-combinations may be helpful:
To be concerned with, to be interested in, to be guided by, to be encouraged by, to
be in charge of, to be filled with, to be prone to, to make use of.
Task 11. Translate into English:
1. Для успешного исследования необходимы любознательность и
воображение.
2. Процесс интерпретации является частью социологического исследования.
3. Понятия – это абстрактные идеи, представляющие элементы общества.
4. Общество является организованной системой, поэтому социальное
взаимодействие шаблонно.
5. Мало кто из людей с готовностью соглашается с тем, что является частью
какой-то системы.
6. Для примера можно вспомнить выше участие в мероприятии, которое
устраивают малознакомые вам люди.
7. Социальная структура накладывает определенные ограничения на
поведение.
8. Неспособность соответствовать установленным моделям может привести
к тому, что другие будут воспринимать вас как девианта.
Task 12. Memorize the following words and word-combinations:
anxiety
quality
assertion
rational
conform
recall
constraint
resistance
established patterns
self-assertive
exert pressure
self-conscious
guideline
setting
infinite
unconventional
interaction
unique
make a favorable impression
with confidence
UNIT 6. ROLE
A second major component of social interaction is role, which refers to patterns of
behavior corresponding to a particular status. Ralph Linton described a role as the
dynamic expression of a status. A student has a role that involves patterned
interaction with professors and other students, and responding to academic demands
made by the college. As Linton explained, while individuals occupy a status, they
perform a role. Cultural norms suggest how a person who holds a particular status
ought to act, which is often called a role expectation. However, real culture only
approximates ideal culture; therefore, actual role performance usually varies from
role expectation.
Like status, a role is relational by directing social behavior toward some other
person. The role that corresponds to the status of parent, for example, is ideally
defined in terms of responsibilities toward a child. Correspondingly, the role of son or
daughter is ideally defined in terms of obligations toward a parent. There are
countless other examples of roles paired in this way: the behavior of wives and
husbands is performed in relation to each other, as is the behavior of physicians and
patients, and of professors and students.
Because individuals occupy many statuses at one time – a status set – they
perform multiple roles. Yet a person has even more roles than statuses because any
one status involves performing several roles in relation to various other people.
Robert Merton (1968) introduced the term role set to identify a number of roles
attached to a single status.
The several roles that are linked to any particular status are not always easily
integrated, so an individual can feel pulled in several directions at once. Role strain is
defined as incompatibility among the roles corresponding to a single status. When
several roles linked to a single status make competing demands a person may not
always be able to live up to social expectations. A parent, for example, may have
difficulty with simultaneous responsibilities to discipline a child and to be the child’s
trusted confident.
In addition, roles attached to different statuses often demand incompatible patterns
of behavior. The concept of role conflict refers to incompatibility among the roles
corresponding to two or more statuses. Single parents often experience conflict in
their attempt to be both parents and bread winners – each status demands
considerable time and energy. Consequently, the individual may find that both roles
cannot be fully performed simultaneously.
Task 1. Transcribe the following words and learn their pronunciation:
actual, audience, dialogue, discipline, dramaturgical, dynamic, ideal, identify,
observed, occupy, patient, physician, professor, status, theatre
Task 2. Find the definitions of:
1) Role; 2) Role set; 3) Role strain; 4) Role conflict.
Task 3. Answer the following questions:
1. When do the individuals play roles?
2. What is called role expectation?
3. Are role performance and role expectation the same or different notions?
4. Does a person have more roles or statuses?
5. What is the difference between role strain and role conflict?
Task 4. Make up disjunctive questions:
1. A role is described as the dynamic expression of a status.
2. Actual role performance usually varies from role expectation.
3. Individuals occupy many statuses at one time.
4. People perform multiple roles.
5. A person has more roles than statuses.
6. Roles attached to different statuses often demand incompatible patterns of
behavior.
Task 5. Summarize the contents of the text in 10 sentences.
Task 6. Identify a number of roles played by:
1) your parents;
2) your close friend;
3) your neighbor;
4) you personally.
Task 7. Translate the text in writing:
Dramaturgical Analysis:
“The Presentation of Self”
Dramaturgical analysis is the analysis of social interaction as if it were a theatrical
performance. This approach to the study of social interaction is closely associated the
work of Erving Goffman (1922–1980). Goffman agreed that people socially construct
reality, but emphasized that in doing so they make use of various elements of social
structure. Thus, like a director carefully scrutinizing actors on a stage, Goffman
sought to identify social structures that are used over and over again.
Dramaturgical analysis provides a fresh look at two now familiar concepts. A
status is very much like a part in a play, and a role can be compared to a script that
supplies dialogue and action to each of the characters. Roles are performed in
countless settings that are like a stage in a theatre, and are observed by various
audiences. The heart of Goffman’s analysis is the process he called the presentation
of the self, which means the ways in which individuals, in various settings, attempt to
create specific impression in the minds of others. This process is also called
impression management, and contains a number of common elements.
Task 8. Answer the questions:
1. What problem does the text deal with?
2. What kind of analysis is dramaturgical analysis?
3. What does “the presentation of self” mean?
4. What is the other name for it?
Task 9. Find in the text English equivalents for:
соответствующий; приближаться; посредством; одновременно; ряд ролей;
вести хозяйство; частичный перечень; несовместимость; следовательно; тесно
связан; снова и снова; суть анализа
Task 10. Read and translate the following words and their derivatives:
interact – interaction– interacting
correspond – correspondence – corresponding – correspondingly
respond – response – respondent
perform – performance
expect – expectation – expectancy
relate – relation – relational – relative – relatively
introduce – introduction – introductory
incompatible – incompatibility
analyze – analysis – analyst
Task 11. Read and translate the following sentences into Russian taking into
account the meanings of: in terms of; by means of
1. The problem must be explained in terms of dialectical materialism.
2. By means of this definition he managed to explicate the issue.
3. They pointed to the drawbacks of his theory by means of a new hypothesis.
4. In terms of his viewpoint the scholar solved his complicated problem.
5. He analyzed the phenomenon of creativity in terms of the new approach.
6. By means of his analysis they made a correct conclusion.
7. In terms of his interpretation the issue was properly examined.
Task 12. Complete the following sentences and translate them into Russian:
1. Single parents experience role conflict with … .
2. I experienced hardships while … .
3. He experiences true feelings toward … .
4. Recent years experienced great transformations in … .
5. I experience joy when … .
6. They experience troubles in … .
Task 13. Memorize the following words and word-combinations:
at once
particular status
closely associated
play a role
consequently
refer to
considerable
relational
correspondingly
role conflict
demand (n.,v.)
role expectation
identify
role performance
incompatibility
role strain
in terms of
simultaneous
multiple roles
status set
UNIT 7. KINDS OF GROUPS
We have already found out that sociology, as one of its main objects, studies
social institutions and social relations, social bodies and social groups. Sociologists
were early concerned with the problem of classifying groups as well. They have
proposed many different classificatory schemes for the specific groups. They make
up their classifications on the basis of selecting a few properties and define ‘types’ of
groups on the principle whether these properties are present or absent.
Among the properties most often employed are size (number of members), amount
of physical interaction among members, degree of intimacy, level of solidarity, focus
of control of group activities and tendency of members to react on one another as
individual persons. On the basis of these properties the following kinds of groups
have been identified: formal – informal, primary – secondary, small – large,
autonomous – dependent, temporary – permanent.
Sometimes sociologists make up their classifications of the groups according to
their objectives or social settings. These are such groups as work groups, therapy
groups, social groups, committees, clubs, gangs, teams, religious groups, and the like.
Task 1. Transcribe the following words and learn their pronunciation:
atmosphere, attribute, autonomous, classify, cohesiveness, identified, isolate,
primary, religious, scheme, specific, therapy
Task 2. Answer the following questions:
1. What does sociology study as one of its main objects?
2. What were sociologists early concerned with?
3. They have proposed many different classificatory schemes, haven’t they?
4. What is the basis of their classification?
5. What properties are most often employed?
6. What kinds of groups are identified on the basis of these properties?
7. What other principles do sociologists employ in their classifications?
8. Give examples of formal groups, informal groups, primary groups, secondary
groups.
Task 3. Agree or disagree with the following:
Use: You are right.
Sorry, but you are wrong.
1. One of the main objects of the sociologists is to study social bodies and social
groups.
2. Sociologists have begun classifying groups quite recently.
3. They make up their group classifications on the basis of a few properties.
4. But sociologists failed to identify these groups.
5. Sometimes they classify groups according to their objectives and social
settings.
6. There is no clear-cut difference between primary and secondary groups.
7. Work groups are formal groups.
Task 4. Divide the text into three logical parts.
Task 5. Characterize in brief:
1. Properties of the groups.
2. Group classifications.
Task 6. Read the text and translate it in writing:
The Nature of Group Cohesiveness
The term ‘group cohesiveness’ is widely discussed by sociologists. Although
different sociologists attribute different properties to the term, most agree that group
cohesiveness is the degree to which the members of a group desire to remain in the
group. Thus, the members of a highly cohesive group, in contrast to the group with a
low level of cohesiveness, are more interested in their membership, in group
objectives, and activities. Cohesiveness increases the significance of membership for
those who belong to the group.
Cohesiveness, as the sociologists state, develops a general group atmosphere that
determines members’ reaction to the group as a whole. Some groups are businesslike, impersonal and efficient. Others are warm, relaxed and friendly. And still others
are full of tension. These differences between groups are the subject of constant
sociological research.
Task 7. Find in the text synonyms for:
to discover, chief, to be interested in, also, to offer, to choose, on the foundation,
to use, to isolate, purpose, environment
Task 8. Translate the following sentences into Russian:
1. He was greatly concerned with the latest sociological research.
2. In their conversation they concerned a great number of vital problems.
3. His main concern was sociology.
4. They talked much concerning the main points of his report.
5. She was concerned with the problems of social relations at the high level of the
society’s development.
Task 9. Make up your own sentences with the following word-combinations. Ask
your groupmates to translate them:
to be concerned with
according to
on the basis of
to react on something
to employ something
and the like
Task 10. Memorize the following words and word-combinations:
amount
impersonal
as a whole
increase (v)
attribute (adj.,v.)
level
autonomous
membership
belong
permanent
cohesiveness
propose
degree of intimacy
remain
dependent
select properties
efficient
temporary
find out
tension
UNIT 8. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROUPS
The extent of personal concern for others in social interaction was used by Charles
Horton Cooley to draw a distinction between two general types of social groups. The
primary group is a social group in which interaction is both personal and enduring.
Within primary groups, people have personal and lasting ties which Cooley
designated as primary relationships. The members of primary groups share broad
dimensions of their lives, generally come to know a great deal about one another, and
display genuine concern for another’s welfare. The family is perhaps the most
important primary group within any society.
Cooley used the term ‘primary’ because social groups of this kind are among the
first groups we experience in life and are important in shaping our personal attitudes
and behavior. They are also of major importance in shaping our social identity, which
is reflected in the fact that the members of any primary group typically think of
themselves as ‘we’.
The strength of primary relationship gives individuals a considerable sense of
comfort and security, which is clearly evident in personal performances. Within the
familiar social environment of family or friends, people tend to feel they can be
themselves and not worry about being continually evaluated by others. At the office,
for example, people are usually self-conscious about their clothing and behavior; at
home, they feel free to dress and act more or less as they wish.
Members of primary groups certainly provide many personal benefits to one
another, including financial as well as emotional support. But people generally
perceive the primary group as an end in itself rather than as a means to other ends.
Thus, for example, we expect a family member or close friend to help us without pay
when we move into a new apartment. At the same time, primary group members
usually do expect that such help will be mutual.
A contrasting type of social group is the secondary group: a social group in which
interaction is impersonal and transitory. Within a secondary group, which usually
contains more people than a primary group, individuals share situational ties that are
called ‘secondary relationships’. For example, individuals who work together in an
office, enroll in the same college course, or belong to a particular political
organization usually constitute a secondary group.
The opposite of the characteristics that describe primary groups apply to
secondary groups. Secondary relationships involve little personal knowledge and
weak emotional ties. They vary in duration, but are usually short-term, beginning and
ending without particular significance. True, people may work in an office for
decades with the same co-workers, but a more typical example of secondary
relationships is students in a college course who never see one another after the
semester ends. Since secondary groups are limited to a single specific activity or
interest, their members have little chance to develop a deep concern for one another’s
overall welfare. Secondary groups are less significant than primary groups for
personal identity. Although people in a secondary group sometimes think of
themselves in terms of ‘we’, the boundary that distinguishes members from
nonmembers is usually far less clear than it is in primary groups.
Secondary groups are important mostly as a means of achieving certain specific
ends. If relationships within primary groups have a personal orientation, those within
secondary groups have a goal orientation. In short, while members of a primary group
have personal importance on the basis of who they are, members of secondary groups
have significance on the basis of what they can do for us.
Individuals in primary groups are likely to be sensitive to patterns of social
exchange – how benefits received by one member compare to those received by
another - although such considerations are not of crucial importance. Within
secondary groups, however, exchange is very important. In business transactions, for
example, the people involved are keenly aware of what they receive for what they
offer. Likewise, the secondary relationships that often characterize neighbors are
based on the expectation that any neighborly favor will be reciprocated in the future.
The goal orientation of secondary groups diverts the focus of social interaction
from personal matters to mutually beneficial cooperation. With the wish to maximize
these benefits, members of secondary groups are likely to craft their performances
carefully, and usually expect others to do the same.
Task 1. Transcribe the following words and practice their pronunciation:
although, apply, characteristic, constitute, course, crucial, decade, emotional,
intimate, major, situational, transaction, type, typically
Task 2. Answer the following questions:
1. What groups do sociologists distinguish?
2. Who was the first to speak on the importance of such distinction?
3. What group is called primary?
4. What is the most important primary group for a child?
5. How are secondary groups organized?
6. What group plays an important part in the formation of personality?
Task 3. Contradict the following statements. Start your sentence with: “Quite on the
contrary …”
1. Primary groups are organized according to special interests of one kind or
another.
2. For a young child the school group constitutes the most important group.
3. Secondary groups depend on face to face association.
4. Secondary groups are more characterized with intimate co-operation than
primary groups.
5. It is the secondary group that plays the main part in the early formation of
personality.
6. Within the secondary group the child receives the direct training as a member
of society.
Task 4. Find in the text the facts to prove that:
1. The family constitutes the most important primary group for a child.
2. Membership in a primary group is an important feature of a child’s life.
3. Membership in a secondary group is an important feature of an adult life.
Task 5. Divide the text into logical parts and give a heading to each part.
Task 6. Find the main idea of each paragraph of the text.
Task 7. Comment on the table:
Primary Groups and Secondary Groups
Quality of relationships
Primary group
Personal orientation
Secondary group
Goal orientation
Duration of relationships
Usually long-term
Variable; often short-term
Breadth of relationships
Broad; usually involving
many activities
As an end in itself
Narrow; usually involving
few activities
As a means to an end
Families; close
friendships
Co-workers; political
organizations
Subjective perception of
relationships
Typical examples
Task 8. Characterize in brief:
1. Primary groups.
2. Secondary groups.
Task 9. Read the text and translate it in writing:
Networks
The term social network designates social ties that link people without the
intensity of social interaction and common identity of a social group. A social
network resembles a social group in that it joins people in social relationships. It
differs from a social group because it is not the basis for consistent social interaction
and generates little sense of common identity or belonging. Social networks also have
no clear boundaries, but expand outward from the individual like a vast web.
Social ties within some networks may be relatively primary, as among people who
attend college together and have since maintained their friendships by mail and
telephone. More commonly, network ties are extremely secondary relationships that
involve little personal knowledge. A social network may also contain people we
know of or who know of us – but with whom we interact infrequently, if at all. Even
though social ties within networks may not be strong, these relationships represent a
valuable source that can be used to personal advantage.
Task 10. Find in the text “Primary and Secondary Groups” English equivalents for:
личный интерес; прочные связи; благополучие; формирование установок;
скорее чем; быть ограниченным; граница; достигнуть определенной цели;
целевая ориентация: напротив; взаимовыгодное сотрудничество
Task 11. Give Russian equivalents for the following English words and wordcombinations:
to draw distinction; to designate; to display genuine concern; major importance;
sense of comfort and security; personal benefits; mutual; transitory; duration; overall
welfare; crucial importance; likewise; to reciprocate
Task 12. Make up word-combinations and translate them into Russian:
To display genuine concern
sympathy
self-consciousness
To share -
troubles
concern
work
duties
responsibilities
To shape -
personal attitudes
social identity
personality
world outlook
knowledge
To be aware of -
reality
social respect
relationships
cultural norms
mutually beneficial cooperation
Task 13. Translate the following sentences into Russian:
1. Such considerations are not of crucial importance.
2. Personal concern in social interaction is of certain value in drawing a
distinction between primary and secondary groups.
3. The family is of major significance in shaping personal attitudes and behavior.
4. The problem of interpersonal relationships is of great interest for the social
thinkers.
5. Secondary relationships are of definite importance in the study of social groups
of people.
6. Human activity in social community is of deep concern for the sociologists.
Task 14. Answer the following questions:
1. What is of great concern for the sociologists in the study of primary groups?
2. What is of chief significance for you in your subject of investigation?
3. What is of major interest for the sociologists dealing with the public opinion
poll?
Task 15. Memorize the following words and word-combinations:
attitude
on the basis
benefit (n.,v.)
personal orientation
boundary
primary
concern (n)
reflect
crucial
secondary
genuine
sensitive
goal orientation
shaping
limit (n.,v.)
short-term
long-term
transitory
mutual
welfare
SUPPLEMENT
HOW TO FIND THE MAIN IDEA OF THE PARAGRAPH
(From: Canavan P.J., King M.L. Developing Reading Skills. Boston, 1968)
First, remember that in the majority of paragraphs the first sentence expresses
the main idea.
Second, read the first sentence of the paragraph to understand it so that you’ll
be able to relate it to everything else in the paragraph – or for that matter, in the entire
selection.
Third, skip to the last two or three sentences in the paragraph.
Fourth, read these last sentences rapidly. If one says the same thing as the first
sentence of the paragraph, you’ll know the first sentence contains the main idea. If
one expresses a different idea, you’ll suspect that it and not the first sentence of the
paragraph is the topic sentence. And if these last sentences are clearly supporting
details for the idea in the first sentence, you’ll know that the first sentence of the
paragraph is the key one.
When doubt remains, there is the fifth step. Since a paragraph is about
something – follow the dominant noun from first to last. Pick it up at or near the
beginning and see it through repetitions, as well as through its transformations into
pronouns and synonyms. Doing this will lead you to the main idea, or convince you
that the first sentence was, after all, the topic sentence.
In fact, we offer this procedure not so you will spend a lot of time locating the
main idea, but so you can do it quickly. On any occasion, don’t use any more of the
steps than necessary, often only the first two will be required. You are really aiming
to see the structure or organization of the paragraph. A later aim will be
comprehension of all the writer’s material in the paragraph. Then you’ll read more
slowly, and more carefully.
BRAIN DRAIN: A NATURAL PHENOMENON?
Nowadays we are hearing less and less about how detrimental brain drain is to
Russia. Have we, like the rest of the world, begun to see it as something natural?
The consolation is that these days, leaving the country does not necessarily
mean saying good-bye forever. Indeed, in recent years, for every scientist who
emigrates for good, there are four who are working on a contract basis. Their lifestyle
is like a watchman’s job – one shift returns, and another leaves. They usually receive
temporary grants, and travel from country to country.
Often they simply go because they can’t continue their research at a
contemporary level in Russia, due to the lack of equipment, reactants, or the fact that
they just can’t get the information they need. In the meantime, the level of this
“internal scientific emigration” is at least twice as high as its “external” counterpart.
According to the official emigration statistics, most of our émigré scientists and
pedagogical workers ended up in Germany, although those who emigrate to Germany
usually end up changing their professions. So, in fact, three quarters of the people
who actively work in the field of fundamental sciences are currently employed in the
United States and Canada. Others go to Israel and Australia, while recently they’ve
also started heading to Latin American countries like Panama, Columbia and Mexico.
There are also more exotic destinations like Trinidad, Namibia and Jamaica. They
comprise the Russian scientific diaspora.
The term diaspora, or “dispersal”, has historically been used to characterize
people who are drawn to one another across a distance. The ethnic-Russian scientific
diaspora, which is scattered throughout the entire world, was able to become “glued
together” very quickly with the help of computer communication systems.
First the Russian scientists had mailing lists; now they also have Web sites.
One of the most popular mailing list is the INFO-RUSS project, which links over
1,200 subscribers. This form of correspondence is open to everybody. According to
recent calculations, approximately 14,000-18,000 scientists from Russia have been
working abroad in the field of fundamental sciences.
Lately, the processes of intellectual migration have become more stable and
have taken on more civilized forms. Today, the West is buying out Russian young
Programmers. Fourth-year students studying at faculties of computational
mathematics and cybernetics can now receive stipends from foreign organizations.
There are representatives of firms recruiting students to work abroad standing by at
the famous technical schools.
A big-name professor may choose the specific universities he would like to
work in, but his students are willing to take any job, even one that has nothing to do
with major science. They are being hired to create virtual casinos, and to develop
banking services and new telecommunication technologies.
But science schools can’t exist without students. And Russia needs to hang on
for about another 10 years, until it gets some fresh blood. The only people to count on
are the kids who are currently in third and fourth grades.
Answer the following questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
What problem is the article devoted to?
Is brain drain a natural phenomenon? What do you think?
Why do Russian scientists leave their Motherland?
Do all of them leave forever?
What countries do they go to?
What does the term “diaspora” mean?
What specialists are of high demand abroad?
What expects Russia in future?
Express your personal opinion of brain drain problem. Is it as dismal as it
seems to be?
FEMALE STATUS ATTAINMENT
When the Canadian sociologists analyzed their data on female status attainment,
they also found some surprising results. First of all, native-born Canadian women
with full-time jobs come from higher status family backgrounds than do their male
counterparts. On the average, their fathers have nearly a year more education and
hold higher-status occupations. Second, the average native-born Canadian working
woman has a Higher-status occupation than do similar males.
Finally, the correlations between women’s occupational prestige and their fathers’
education and occupational prestige are much lower than for men. Moreover, these
same findings have turned up in American studies; it has now become standard
practice to include women in status attainment research. How can these patterns be
explained?
First of all, women are less likely than men to hold full-time jobs and are
especially unlikely to work the lower their work qualifications. For many married
women, especially those with young children, low-paying jobs offer no real economic
benefits; the costs of working (including childcare) are about equal to the wages paid.
In consequence, low-paying, low-status jobs are disproportionally held by males.
This fact accounts for women having jobs of higher average prestige. But women are
also underrepresented in the highest-prestige jobs.
As a result their occupational prestige is limited to a narrow range than that of
men, which reduces correlations with background variables. That the average
working woman’s father of the average employed male can be understood in the
same terms. More qualified women come from more privileged homes; the daughters
of the least-educated and lowest-status fathers aren’t in full-time jobs.
In fact, the husbands of working women have occupations with higher than
average prestige. This is because of a very high correspondence between the
occupational prestige of husbands and wives when both are employed full-time.
People who marry tend to share very similar levels of education and similar family
backgrounds. Indeed, divorce and remarriage contribute to the similarity of husbands
and wives in terms of occupational prestige.
These findings must not cause us to overlook the fact that women long were
excluded from many occupations and are still underrepresented in elite managerial
and professional careers. What they do show, however, is that within the special
conditions outlined here, female status attainment does not differ much from that of
men.
SAYING GOOD-BYE TO THIS WORLD
Hospice is not a common word for Russia. The modern hospice movement – the
provision of homes for terminally ill patients where they spend their last days – was
born in Britain. The first among them was an establishment founded in 1967 by Lady
Cicely Saunders with her own money. She named it after St. Christopher. A few
years ago, on the initiative of Victor Zorza, a British journalist, hospices began to
appear in this country. Today there are 22; seven of them are in St. Petersburg and
one in Moscow.
Whom does the hospice provide care to? Information comes in concerning
prospective patients from area outpatient clinics, or from district oncologists or
general practitioners. An application must be submitted with a case report and
diagnosis. Some patients need palliative institutional treatment.
Patients are only admitted here in the following cases. First, those who suffer from
an intractable pain syndrome, when no home medication can help. In this event, they
are placed under round-the-clock observation and an effective anesthetic plan is
selected. Personnel here know that relatives of these patients need temporary relief.
Second, special attention is given to lonely people and those who live in communal
apartments. For the majority of them this cozy home with a quiet courtyard is a
heavenly place, if it is appropriate to say so about a hospice. After spending a week
or two here, many do not want to leave, regarding the discharge as an act of cruelty.
Although the furnishings and the equipment in this home for the terminally ill
show that the Moscow authorities have invested considerable funds in this project,
the city budget is still limited. Just like British hospices, Russian ones count on
philanthropists. One firm provides writing paper; another provides flowers and
someone to look after them; a fourth donated fixtures and fittings for the bathrooms.
Unlike its London counterpart, the Moscow hospice has a house call service.
Doctors, nurses, a social worker, a lawyer, and a psychologist visit patients in their
homes. They provide medical and social assistance, including patient care, apartment
cleaning, meal preparation, buying food, assistance in executing legal documents, etc.
There are a lot of things to do, and so the service tries to mobilize the patient’s
relatives, neighbors, and colleagues.
Answer the questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Where was the modern hospice movement born?
When was the first hospice established?
How many hospices are there in the world today?
Whom does the hospice provide care to?
In what cases are the patients admitted to the hospice?
Do hospices exist on the philanthropic grounds?
What specialists take care of the terminally ill patients?
Find the information about hospices in your city.
EXPLORING THE MOTHER’S AND FATHER’S ROLES
What do you think of when you hear the word motherhood? If you are like most
people, you associate motherhood with a number of positive images, such as warmth,
selflessness, dutifulness and tolerance. And while most women expect that
motherhood will be happy and fulfilling, the reality is that motherhood has been
accorded relatively low prestige in our society. Mothers rarely receive the
appreciation they warrant. When children don’t succeed or they develop problems,
our society has had a tendency to attribute the lack of success or the development of
problems to a single source – mothers.
The role of the mother brings with it benefits as well as limitations. Although
motherhood is not enough to fill most women’s entire lives, for most mothers it is
one of the most meaningful experiences in their lives.
The father’s role has undergone major changes. During the colonial period in
America, fathers were primarily responsible for moral teaching. Fathers provided
guidance and values, especially through religion. With the Industrial Revolution, the
father’s role changed; he gained the responsibility as the breadwinner. By the end of
World War II, another role for fathers emerged, that of manhood model. Although
being breadwinner and moral guardian continued to be important father roles,
attention shifted to the father’s role as a male, especially for sons. The father now is
being evaluated in terms of his active, nurturant involvement with his children.
Children’s social development can significantly benefit from interaction with a
caring, accessible, and dependable father who fosters a sense of trust and confidence.
The father’s positive family involvement assumes special importance in developing
children’s social competence, because he is often the only male the child encounters
on a regular day-to-day basis.
Father-mother cooperation and mutual respect helps the child develop positive
attitude toward both males and females. It is much easier for working parents to cope
with changing family circumstances and day-care issues when the father and mother
equitably share child-rearing responsibilities. Mothers feel less stress and have more
positive attitudes toward their husbands when they are supportive partners.
In earlier times, women considered being a mother a full-time occupation.
Currently, there is a tendency to have fewer children, and, as birth control has
become common practice, many individuals choose when they will have children and
how many children they will raise. The number of one-child families is increasing.
Three accompanying changes are that (1) as a result of the increase in working
women, there is less maternal investment in the child’s development; (2) men are apt
to invest a greater amount of time in fathering; and (3) parental care in the home is
often supplemented by institutional care (day care, for example).
As more women show an increased interest in developing a career, they are not
only marrying later, but also having children later. What are some of the advantages
of having children early or late? Some of the advantages of having children early
are these:
 The parents are likely to have more physical energy (for example, they can
cope better with such matters as getting up in the middle of the night with
infants and waiting up until adolescents come home at night);
 the mother is likely to have fewer medical problems with pregnancy and
childbirth;
 the parents may be less likely to build up expectations for their children, as
do many couples who have waited many years to have children.
By contrast, there are also advantages to having children late:
 The parents will have had more time to consider their goals in life, such as
what they want from their family and career roles;
 the parents will be more mature and will be able to benefit from their life
experiences to engage in more competent parenting;
 and the parents will be better established in their careers and have more income
for child-rearing expenses.
WOMEN’S PLACE IN THE WORLD
What are the political, economic, educational, and psychological conditions of
women around the world? Frances Culbertson, president of the Clinical Psychology
of Women section of the American Psychological Association, recently summarized
these conditions.
Women and Politics
In politics, too often women are treated like burdens rather than assets. Especially
in developing countries, women marry early and have many children quickly, in
many cases before their undernourished bodies have an opportunity to mature. In
such developing countries, women need greater access to education, work, health
care, and especially family planning. Some experts on women’s issues believe that
these needs would have a better chance of being met if women were more strongly
represented at the decision-making and managerial levels of governments and
international organizations. For example, in 1990, less than 10 per cent of the
members of national legislatures were women, and for every 100 ministerial-level
positions around the world only 5 were filled by women.
Women and Employment
Women’s work around the world is more limiting and narrower than that of men.
Bank tellers and secretaries are most often women. Domestic workers in North
America and in Central and South America are most often women. Around the world,
jobs defined as women’s work too often carry low pay, low status, and little security.
Two authors described many of these circumstances as “job ghettos”. In 1990 the
only countries in the world that had maternity leave and guaranteed jobs on the basis
of national law were Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Finland, Switzerland, Germany, Italy,
Egypt, Syria, Russia, Japan and Thailand. Among the major countries without these
provisions were the United States, England, and France.
Women and Education
The countries with the fewest women being educated are in Africa, where in some
areas women are receiving no education at all. Canada, the United States, and Russia
have the highest percentage of educated women. In developing countries, 67 percent
of the women and 50 percent of the men over the age of 25 have never been to
school. In 1985, 80 million more boys than girls were in primary and secondary
educational settings around the world.
Women and Psychological Issues
Women around the world, in every country, experience violence, often by
someone close to them. In Canada 10 percent of the women report that they have
been beaten in their homes by the man they live with, and in the United States almost
2 million women are beaten in their homes each year. In a recent survey, “The New
Woman Ethics Report”, wife abuse was listed as number one among 15 of the most
pressing concerns facing society today. Although most countries around the world
now have battered women’s shelters, there are some countries where beating women
continues to be accepted and expected.
In a recent investigation of depression in high-income countries, the women were
twice as likely as the men to be diagnosed as being in depression. In the United
States, from adolescence through adulthood, females are more likely to be depressed
than males. There are many socio-cultural inequities and experiences that have
contributed to the greater incidence of depression in females than males.
Answer the questions:
1. What place do women hold in politics? Are they satisfied with this position?
2. Jobs are commonly divided into men’s and women’s work. Can you give any
reasons for this division?
3. Why are jobs defined as women’s work called “job ghettos”?
4. Do women need better education? Do you think we would live in a better
world if women had better education?
5. Why is “wife abuse” a number one of the most pressing concerns facing
society today?
SOCIAL INEQUALITY
Ever since people began to speculate about the nature of human society, their
attention has been drawn to the differences that can be easily observed between
individuals and groups within any society. The term social inequality describes a
condition in which members of a society have unequal amounts of wealth, prestige,
or power. Wealth accounts for all of a person’s material assets, including land and
other types of property. Prestige refers to the respect with which a person’s
occupation is regarded by society. Power is the ability to exercise one’s will over
others.
All cultures are characterized by some degree of social inequality. When a system
is based on a hierarchy of groups having unequal economic rewards and power in a
society, sociologists call it stratification.
Stratification is one of the most important and complex subjects of sociological
investigation because of its great influence on human interactions and institutions. Of
course, each of us wants “fair share” of society’s rewards, and we often come into
conflict over how these rewards should be divided. Family members argue over who
should be given money to buy new clothing or take a vacation; nations go to war over
precious resources such as oil or minerals. As a result, sociologists have directed their
attention to the implications of stratification in ranking members of a society and the
ways in which social inequalities are passed on individuals, groups and generations.
Stratification is universal and social scientific research has revealed that inequality
exists in all societies. Viewed from the sociological perspective stratification has
several forms:
1. Stratification by social class, based on income differences and unequal
sources of wealth.
American sociologists have worked out the class system of the United States using
a five-class model. About 1 percent of Americans are categorized as upper-class, a
group limited to the very wealthy. These people form intimate associations with one
another in exclusive clubs and social circles. By contrast, the lower class, consisting
of approximately 20 percent of Americans, is populated by many of the elderly, as
well as single mothers with dependent children and people who cannot find regular
work. This class lacks both wealth and income and is too weak politically to exercise
significant power.
Between these two classes are the upper middle class (10%), the lower middle
class (30%), and the working class (40%). The upper middle class is composed of
professionals such as doctors, lawyers, and architects. They participate extensively in
politics and exercise leadership roles in different associations. The lower middle class
includes less wealthy professionals, such as teachers and nurses, owners of small
business, clerical workers. The working class are people holding regular manual or
blue-collar jobs (as contrasted to white-collar jobs, i.e. employees). Yet, certain
members of this class, such as electricians, may have higher incomes than people in
the lower middle class.
2. Stratification by race and ethnicity, based on minority groups division.
When sociologists define a minority group, they are primarily concerned with the
economic and political power, or powerlessness of this group. Thus, a minority
group is a subordinate group whose members have significantly less control or
power over their own lives than the members of a dominant or majority group have
over theirs. However, in certain instances, a group which constitutes a numerical
majority can still be a minority group in sociological terms (for example, women).
The term “racial group” is used to describe a minority (sometimes a rather
dominant) group which is set apart from others by obvious physical differences.
Whites, blacks, and Asian Americans are all considered racial groups within the
United States.
Unlike racial groups, an ethnic group is set apart from others primarily because of
its national origin or distinctive cultural patterns, for example, Jews.
In most societies, physical differences tend to be more visible than ethnic
differences that is why stratification along racial lines is less subject to change than
stratification along ethnic lines. But in a biological sense, there are no “pure races”
and no “physical” traits that can be used to describe one group to the exclusion of all
others.
3. Stratification by gender, based on sexism, i.e. the ideology that one sex is
superior to the over.
Although numerically a majority, in many respects women fit the definition of a
subordinate minority group within contemporary society. Sociological studies
indicate that that is a men’s world and there are no societies in it in which women
play the decisive role.
There are obvious biological differences between the sexes which contribute to the
development of gender identity, i.e. the self-concept of a person as being male or
female. But many societies have established social distinctions between the sexes
which do not result from biological differences. The so called gender roles are
defined as expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of
males and females. The application of traditional gender roles leads to many forms of
differentiation between men and women. Men have traditionally been viewed as the
providers of the family, while women have been expected to assume almost total
responsibility for child care and household duties. In addition, our culture views
many forms of work as “women’s work” or “men’s work”. Both sexes are capable of
learning to cook and to type, yet these tasks are usually performed by women. Both
men and women are capable of learning to fly airplanes, but this function is generally
assigned to males. When one looks at the political structure of contemporary
countries, one has to look hard to find many women. However in modern industrial
societies there has been an evident change in the application of traditional gender
roles to sexes.
4. Stratification by age, based on age differentiation.
Some of this age differentiation seems inevitable; it would make little sense to
send young children off to war or to expect most older citizens to handle physically
demanding tasks such as loading goods at shipyards.
Age, like race and gender, is an ascribed status. “Being old” is a master status that
sometimes overshadows all others. Moreover, this status is generally viewed in
negative terms. Sociological studies report widespread perceptions of older citizens
as stubborn, touchy, quarrelsome, bossy, and meddlesome. These studies also show
that elderly person receive less respect as they get older. Abuse and neglect of elderly
members within the family have received increasing public attention in recent years.
The competition in the labor force is not in the elderly favor either; very often
younger adults view older workers as “job stealers”. This belief does not only
intensify age conflict but leads to age discrimination. And last but not least, the
elderly are especially likely to be victims of age segregation. Many have to live in
special nursing houses in which they are often at a disadvantage and feel lonely and
unhappy.
Thus, the subordinate status of the elderly is quite evident in all societies and the
elderly fit all the properties of a minority group with one crucial difference: all of us
will eventually assume the ascribed status of being an older person and an increasing
proportion of any population is composed of elderly citizens.
Answer the questions:
1. What is social inequality usually based on?
2. Why is stratification one of the most important and complex subjects of
sociological investigation?
3. What forms of stratification exist in all societies?
4. What is stratification by social class?
5. What is the difference between a racial group and an ethnic group?
6. How can different social groups relate to one another in a society?
7. What is stratification by gender based on?
8. How can you prove that ours is a men’s world?
9. What shows that women gain some degree of power at present?
10.What is stratification by age?
11.How can you prove the subordinate status of the elderly in all societies?
12.Are there any problems in being young?
13.Do you feel any social inequality?
VOCABULARY
A
accessible - доступный
advantage – преимущество
affection - привязанность
amount – количество, итог
anxiety – беспокойство
approach - подход
appropriate (adj; n) – соответствующий; присваивать, предназначать
as a whole – в целом
ascribed status – приписываемый статус
assertion - утверждение
assess - оценивать
assessment - оценка
at once - сразу
attainment – достижение, приобретение
attitude – отношение, позиция
attribute (n;v.) – признак, характерная черта; относить, приписывать
autonomous - независимый
B
background - происхождение
behavior - поведение
belong - принадлежать
benefit (n;v) – польза, преимущество; извлекать/приносить пользу
be prone to – быть склонным к
boundary - граница
brain drain – утечка мозгов
by mail – по почте
by means of – с помощью, посредством
C
carry out research – проводить исследование
cause-and-effect – причина и следствие
census - перепись
clarify – прояснить, внести ясность
close-ended format – закрытый формат
closely associated – тесно связанный
cohesive – способный к сцеплению, связанный
cohesiveness – когезионная способность
competition – соревнование, конкуренция
concern (n;v) – отношение, интерес; иметь отношение, заниматься
conduct research – проводить исследование
confirm - подтверждать
conform – соответствовать, подчиняться
consequently – следовательно, в результате
considerable - значительный
consolation - утешение
constraint – принуждение, скованность
correspondingly - соответственно
crucial – решающий, ключевой, критический
current – текущий, современный
D
degree of intimacy – степень близости
demand (n;v) – требование, спрос; требовать, нуждаться
dependent (adj;n) – зависимый, подчиненный; иждивенец
descriptive research – описательное исследование
develop a theory – развить/разработать теорию
diaspora - диаспора
differ from – отличаться от
disadvantage - недостаток
discipline – предмет (дисциплина)
discourage - препятствовать
distinctive – отличительный, характерный
draw conclusions – делать выводы
E
efficient – эффективный, действенный
emerge – появляться, возникать
empirical evidence – эмпирическое доказательство
employ – использовать, применять, нанимать
encourage – способствовать, поддерживать
established patterns – установленные модели
evaluate – оценивать, определять
event – событие, случай
exert pressure – оказывать давление
experience (n;v) – опыт; испытывать, знать по опыту
explanatory research – пояснительное исследование
expose – раскрывать, показывать
extent - степень
F
familiar – знакомый, привычный
find out – выяснить, обнаружить
focus (n) – фокус, центр
focus on (v) – сосредоточить внимание на
fundamental sciences – фундаментальные науки
G
gender – род, пол
generation – поколение
genuine – подлинный, истинный
goal orientation – целевая ориентация
guideline – принцип, установка
guiding principles – руководящие принципы
I
identify – устанавливать, отождествлять
impersonal – безличный, беспристрастный
incompatibility - несовместимость
increase (n;v) – рост, увеличение; увеличивать, повышать
inevitable - неизбежный
infinite – бесконечный, безграничный
influence (n;v) – влияние, воздействие; влиять
interaction - взаимодействие
in terms of – с точки зрения
investigation – исследование, изучение
involve – включать, вовлекать, затрагивать
issue (n;v) – проблема, вопрос; издавать, производить
item – вопрос, пункт
L
level - уровень
limit (n;v) – предел, граница; ограничивать
link (n;v) – звено, связь; соединять, связывать
long-term – долгосрочный, длительный
M
major – основной, главный
majority - большинство
make a favorable impression – произвести благоприятное впечатление
make use of - использовать
managerial level – управленческий уровень
measure (n;v) - мера, размер; измерять
membership – членство, состав
minority - меньшинство
multiple roles – многочисленные роли
mutual - взаимный
N
nationwide – общегосударственный, всенародный
need – нужда, потребность
neglect - пренебрегать
nurturant - заботливый
O
obtain – получать, добиваться
occur – происходить, случаться
on the basis – на основе
open-ended format – открытый формат
P
paragraph - абзац
particular status – особый/определенный статус
pattern – модель, образец
permanent - постоянный
personal orientation – личностная ориентация
play a role – играть роль
point of view – точка зрения
polled – опрашиваемый
preliterate - необразованный
primarily – главным образом, в основном
primary – первичный, основной
propose – предлагать, полагать
public opinion poll – опрос общественного мнения
publish – издавать, публиковать
Q
quality - качество
quantitative - количественный
quantity - количество
questionnaire – анкета, опросный лист
R
rational – рациональный, рассудительный
recall - вспомнить
refer to – обращаться к , ссылаться на
refine – совершенствовать, улучшать
reflect – отражать, размышлять
reject – отвергать, отказывать(ся)
relational – реляционный, относительный, родственный
relationship – связь, отношение
remain - оставаться
resistance - сопротивление
respondent – респондент, ответчик
response - ответ
role conflict – ролевой конфликт
role performance – ролевое представление
role strain – ролевое напряжение
round-the-clock - круглосуточный
S
script - сценарий
secondary – вторичный, второстепенный
select properties – выбирать свойства
self-administered survey – самостоятельное исследование/обследование
self-assertive – напористый, самоуверенный
self-concept - самооценка
self-conscious - застенчивый
sensitive – чувствительный, восприимчивый
setting – окружение (среда)
shaping - формирование
shift (v.) – смещать, менять направление
short-term – краткосрочный, кратковременный
simultaneous – одновременный, синхронный
simultaneously - одновременно
society - общество
specify – указывать, определять, устанавливать
statement - утверждение
status set – статус-набор
stratification - расслоение
subject (n;v) – тема, предмет, вопрос; подчинять, представлять
subject matter - предмет
suggest - предлагать
suit (v.) – соответствовать, подходить
survey (n;v) – исследование, обзор; рассматривать, исследовать
T
technique – методика, способ, прием, техника
temporary - временный
tension – напряжение, напряженность
terminally - неизлечимо
through comparison – через/путем сравнения
tools of research –исследовательские инструменты
transitory – преходящий, мимолетный
U
unconventional - нетрадиционный
under supervision – под наблюдением/руководством
unique – необыкновенный, уникальный
urge (n;v) – импульс, толчок; побуждать, настаивать на
V
variable - переменная
variety – разнообразие, множество
vary - изменяться
verbally - устно
W
welfare – благополучие, достаток
with confidence – с уверенностью
with regard to – в отнощении, что касается
SOURCES
1. About sociology in English. О социологии: Практикум по английскому
языку. – 2-е изд. – М.: Флинта: Наука, 2001.- 112 с.
2. Донченко Е.Н. Английский для психологов и социологов. Серия
«Учебники, учебные пособия». Ростов н/Д: «Феникс», 2002. – 512 с.
3. Мифтахова Н.Х., Муртазина Э.М. Профессиональный английский язык
социального работника: учеб. пос. в 2-х частях. Часть 1 / Н.Х.Мифтахова,
Э.М.Муртазина. – 2-е издание, исправленное и дополненное. – М.: КДУ,
2011. – 184 с.: табл., ил.
4. Learn to Read Science/ Курс английского языка для аспирантов: Учебное
пособие / Руков. Н.И. Шахова. – 5-е изд., исп. – М.: Флинта: Наука, 2004.
– 368с.
CONTENTS
Unit 1. What Is Sociology? ………………………………………………………….3
Unit 2. Social barometer ……………………………………………………………7
Unit 3. Sociological Theory ………………………………………………………..10
Unit 4. The Methods of Sociological Research …………………………………..14
Unit 5. Social Structure and Individuality ……………………………………….18
Unit 6. Role …………………………………………………………………………23
Unit 7. Kinds of Groups ……………………………………………………….......27
Unit 8. Primary and Secondary Groups …………………………………………30
Supplement
How to Find the Main Idea of the Paragraph? …………………………………..35
Brain Drain: a Natural Phenomenon? ……………………………………………35
Female Status Attainment …………………………………………………………37
Saying Good-bye to the World ……………………………………………………38
Exploring the Mother’s and Father’s Roles ……………………………………...39
Women’s Place in the World …………………………………………………….. 41
Social Inequality …………………………………………………………………...42
Vocabulary …………………………………………………………………………46
Sources ……………………………………………………………………………...51