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Transcript
Unit III Learning and Intelligence Chapters 9-11,13 Psychology Unit 3: Learning and Intelligence Critical Vocabulary Classical Conditioning • A learning procedure in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus Operant Conditioning • Learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence Social Learning • Form of learning in which the organism observes, explores, and imitates the behavior of others Cognition • Cognition is the scientific term for "the process of thought". • Thought depends on several processes & components: images, symbols, concepts, prototypes, and rules Short-term Memory • Memory that is limited in capacity to about seven items for a short period of time Sensory Memory • Very brief memory storage immediately following initial stimulation of a receptor Long-term Memory • Refers to the storage of information in the human mind over extended periods of time Recall • The type of memory retrieval in which a person reconstructs previously learned material without the aid of or with very few external cues • E.g.—What year was the Declaration of Independence written? Recognition • The type of memory retrieval in which a person is required to identify an object, idea, or situation as one he or she has experienced before • E.g.—What year was the Declaration of Independence written? A. 1774 B. 1776 C. 1970 D. 1965 Language • A system of communication that involves using rules to make and combine symbols in ways that produce meaningful words and sentences Creativity • The ability to use information, invent new solutions to problems, or create original and ingenious materials Learning • A Relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience – 1)Inferred from a change in behavior or performance – 2)Results in an inferred change in memory – 3)The result of experience – 4)Relatively permanent Classical Conditioning • Mental associations are made between a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus – Associating one stimulus with another – In classical conditioning a person’s or an animal’s OLD response becomes attached to a NEW stimulus Classical Conditioning • IVAN PAVLOV—Does the name Pavlov ring a bell?? • While studying the digestive patterns of dogs, Pavlov noticed that just the sight and smell of food made the dogs salivate, so he began to study this and theorized CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Classical Conditioning • Pavlov’s Dogs: – A tuning fork is struck – Food/meat powder is placed on the dog’s tongue – Dog’s salivate – Repeat several times – Tuning fork is stuck – Dog’s begin salivating at just the sound of the bell with out the presence of the food Pavlov’s Dogs Classical Conditioning • General Principles: – N: A stimulus that does not initially elicit a response, but can cause a formally unrelated response – UCS: an event that elicits a certain, predictable response without previous training – UCR: an organisms natural or automatic response to a stimulus • REFLEXES!!! – CS: the stimuli that causes the reaction/response after conditioning – CR: the learned reaction Classical Conditioning • How does an animal or person acquire a conditioned response?? • A CS is paired with an UCS multiple times so that the CR is acquired and strengthened N + UCS = UCR CS + UCS = CR Classical Conditioning • Sooo….how then were Pavlov’s Dogs conditioned??? UCS CS UCR CR Presentation of the food or meat powder The Tuning fork or bell Salivation: food causes the dogs to salivate regardless of any conditioning The dogs hear a bell and instantly salivate N (bell) + UCS (food) = UCR (salivation) CS (bell) + UCS (food) = CR (hear bell, salivate) Classical Conditioning • Common Conditional Responses: (1)N + UCS = UCR (2)CS + UCS= CR Fear of the Dentist’s Drill Sound of the Drill Drilling into Teeth Tension/ Pain Sound of Drill/Sight of Dentist Drill into Teeth Hear Drill/See Dentist, Feel Tension and Pain Advertising Slogan/ Song Catchy Jingle or Slogan Product Favorable Feeling Catchy Jingle or Slogan Product Hear Song or Slogan, Get a Favorable Feeling Loathing for the Police Flashing Police Lights Speeding Ticket Anger/Fear Flashing Police Lights Speeding Ticket See Flashing lights, fell anger and fear Can you think of more from your own experience???!?!???!! Classical Conditioning • If I am trying to condition say…MY STUDENTS, how can I create the strongest association between the CS and the UCS?!?! • The Strongest associations are made when the UCS is presented ½ second before the UCR WHY?! Classical Conditioning • Say you wake up daily to the same alarm sound on your phone daily…this sound soon becomes very unpleasant and brings about a feeling of dread. What happens when you hear a similar sound throughout the day? – You shutter and have that same feeling of unpleasant dread • GENERALIZATION Classical Conditioning • Generalization: An animal responds to a second stimulus similar to the original CS without prior training with the second stimulus • EX. Pavlov’s tests with circles and ovals • Can you think of ways this process is used in everyday life?! Classical Conditioning Stimulus DISCRIMINATION: the ability of an animal to respond differently to different stimuli—The process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not EXAMPLES?! Classical Conditioning • If a response can be learned or conditioned, can it become EXTINCT?! • YES—EXTINCTION occurs when the CS is presented over time without the UCS causing a Disappearance of the CR • Can it come back?! YES– Spontaneous Recovery: when a CR has become extinct, it does not mean it is completely gone, it may reappear but NOT at its original strength Classical Conditioning • Classical Conditioning and Human Behavior: – 1)Emotional Responses – 2)Fear Responses – 3)Taste Aversions Little Albert By: John Watson Classical Conditioning In what areas can humans benefit from classical Conditioning?! Classical Conditioning How are we Classically Conditioned in our Everyday lives?! Classical Conditioning in TV • The Office – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WfZfMIHwSkU • The Big Bang Theory – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qy_mIEnnlF4&fea ture=related • Super Size Me – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gpRQhVd63Y8 Operant Conditioning • Operant Conditioning: Learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence • How to control one’s environment to elicit a reward or avoid a punishment • Learning from the consequences of Behavior! • Will the subject operate or respond the same way in the future?? Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning • The process in which a • The study of how person’s NATURAL VOLUNTARY behavior is responses become affected by its attached to a new consequences stimulus • Learner operates on • Reacting to a person’s their environment environment • NO stimulus • Natural to salivate at food, this becomes attached or associated with the bell • Learning from the consequences of behavior choices Operant Conditioning • REINFORCEMENT: Stimulus or event that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated Positive Negative Reinforcement Reinforcement Occurs when Occurs when something the animal something Unpleasant wants is ADDED after is TAKEN AWAY or the action AVOIDED if the animal performs the action Teach a dog a trick with treats! Punish a dog with yelling Operant Conditioning BEHAVIOR Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement CHANGED Behavior Reinforcement MUST occur BEFORE there is a CHANGE in Behavior Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner 1950 The Skinner Box: Taught a rat to respond to lights and sounds in a specially enclosed box A rat, placed in the Skinner box, must learn how to solve the problem of how to get food to appear in a cup. Operant Conditioning Primary Reinforcers Secondary Reinforcers • Satisfies a biological need – Hunger – Thirst – Sleep • One that has been paired with a primary reinforcer and through classical conditioning has acquired value and reinforced – MONEY MORE EXAMPLES?!?! What is a reinforcer for one person is not necessarily the same for another person Operant Conditioning CHIMP-O-MAT • WOLF– to get food, chimps must 1st get a poker chip to place in a slot to get food. Soon chimps begin to save, spend, and steal chips like humans do with money Poker chips as a Secondary Reinforcer • Poker chips become conditioned reinforcers for the chimps Operant Conditioning Continuous Reinforcement Schedule • Behavior that is reinforced EVERY time it occurs • To get the best behavior reinforcement every time • Quick extinction is the reinforcement stops • • • • **Reinforcement is dependent on FREQUENCY and TIMING Partial Reinforcement Schedule Positive behavior occurs only intermittently Acquired more slowly, but more persistent Behavior lasts longer Animals respond differently to each Partial reinforcement schedules Operant Conditioning Schedules of Reinforcement—The Skinner Box Fixed-Ratio: behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses Food given after a fixed number of responses Variable-Ratio: Reinforcement is provided after a variable number of responses Number of responses required to get food changes each time Fixed-Interval: Reinforcement is based on a time schedule Food given after a certain amount of time elapses Variable-Interval: Reinforcement is provided from time to time at a variable rate Amount of time required to get food changes each time Operant Conditioning • FIXED RATIO: getting paid per jobs done; sell this much, get this much; 5 fouls= ejection from basketball • VARIABLE RATIO: slot machines; telemarketing—never know when response will happen next; the more you try, the more you get Operant Conditioning • Fixed-Interval: test cycle of 9 week course about one test per week: study really hard right before the test, but not as much afterwards; pay-check cycle • Variable-Interval: calling a friend, but getting a busy signal and calling back until they answer; Slow, but Steady Operant Conditioning • INTERVAL SCHEDULES = TIME • RATIO SCHEDULES = # of RESPONSES • Variable Less extinction; most human relationships reinforced this way Operant Conditioning • • • • Negative Reinforcement A painful or unpleasant stimulus is removed Follows and negates a behavior Takes away Escape or avoidance behavior is repeated and increases in frequency • 2 Types: ESCAPE CONDITIONING: training and organism to remove or terminate an unpleasant stimulus & AVOIDANCE CONDITIONING: prevent an unpleasant stimulus before it starts OPERANT CONDITIONING PUNISHMENT • An unpleasant consequence occurs after a behavior, decreasing the frequency of the behavior • Behavior that is punished decreases or is NOT repeated • CONS: 1) unwanted side effects 2) avoidance of punisher 3) may only suppress, but not diminish behavior 4) must be paired with positive coaching and modeling to truly work Operant Conditioning Negative Reinforcement 1. Unpleasant stimulus Punishment 1. Introducing an unpleasant stimulus 2. Removal of unpleasant stimulus EX: shocking EX: Loud noise in study area, move to a new study area and from now on avoid the loud place 2. Withholding a pleasant stimulus EX: Not allowed to have dessert Operant Conditioning What are some reasons to avoid punishment situations, and instead rely on positive reinforcement? Operant Conditioning How could a therapist using classical or operant conditioning help cigarette smokers quit smoking? Operant Conditioning Describe two TV or radio commercials and how they use classical or operant conditioning. Social Learning Social Learning: The 3rd type of Learning What are the 1st and 2nd? Explain them! Social Learning • Social Learning, consisting of cognitive learning and modeling, involves how people make decisions and act upon the information available to them Social learning is the Process of altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others Social Learning The Bobo Doll Albert BANDURA’s experiment with modeling An adult modeled extreme aggression towards the doll, and when left alone the children who observed this did as well Social Learning BOBO DOLL Bandura • http://video.google.co m/videoplay?docid=4586465813762682933 # Social Learning • There are 2 types of Social Learning Cognitive Learning Modeling Social Learning • Cognitive Learning: is a form of altering behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or imitation • How our brain and biological makeup enables us to learn Social Learning • Edward Tomlin’s Cognitive Map of Mazes • A rat was placed in a maze with food at the opposite side, the rat began to learn how to take the quickest path to the food every time, even when the route was altered. • The rat had developed a cognitive map of the maze Social Learning Cognitive Maps A mental picture of spatial relationships or relationships between events What do you have a cognitive map of?! Draw on your COGNITIVE MAP of Marcus to draw a physical map with a partner! Social Learning • Behavioralism deals mostly with OBSERVABLE behavior, however… • LATENT LEARNING is learning that is NOT demonstrated by an immediate, observable change in behavior • This is learning that may occur in the absence of reinforcement, but is only seen when a reinforcer is present….EXAMPLES?! Social Learning Think back to Operant Conditioning, learning is based on our reactions to the consequences of our behaviors…What if however, our actions and behaviors have no effect? What would happen to our behavior? Social Learning • Learned Helplessness [Laziness]: a condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation fail, resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable • If rewards come without effort, a person never learns to work! Social Learning What would a person’s response likely be to learned helplessness?! Social Learning 1) Stability—Helplessness that results from a permanent characteristic 1) Temporary—I did bad because I was tiered 2) Stable—I always do bad 2) Globality—I am just dumb; I am bad at everything 1) Internality—Thinking or blaming the problem on yourself, rather than external factors Social Learning MODELING—The 2nd type of Social Learning Modeling is learning by imitating others; copying behavior 3 types: Modeling, Observable Learning, and Disinhibition Social Learning 3 Types of Modeling Wall Chart: In 3 groups, we will create a chart that illustrates the three types of Modeling Define the type, give an example, and demonstrate it Social Learning • Modeling– the behavior of others simply increases the chances that we will do the same thing • No new learning is really occurring, we just use old responses in new situations based on trends, peers, etc. Social Learning • OBSERVABLE LEARNING– imitation; watch someone do something and then you are able to reproduce it again when you could not before • Each person is affected differently by their observations—violent games/movies elicit different responses from different kids Social Learning • DISINHIBITION—when an observer watches someone else engage in a threatening activity without punishment, the observer may find it easier to engage in that behavior later • How can this be both good and bad?! Memory and Thinking FLASHBULB MEMORY 9/11/01 Where were you? What were you doing? Memory What is Memory?? – Memory-storage and retrieval of what has been learned or experienced. INPUT-Information coming IN. the process by which information is maintained over a period of time Retrieval the transforming of information so the nervous system can process it Storage Encoding Memory the process of obtaining information that has been stored in memory Memory • Encoding: using the sense to remember information: ACOUSTIC CODES, VISUAL CODES, SEMANTIC CODES • Storage: maintaining info over time; information can be stored for a life time or just a few seconds depending on the effort put into encoding it • Retrieval: bringing the stored info back to mind CENTRAL PROCESSING • Sensory Storage-information is held for a second or two. • Short term memory-information is kept in the mind as long as you repeat it. [limited in capacity] • A. rehearsal-repeat information to keep in memory. • B. chunking-organize information into a collection or category…makes it easier to remember Mnemonics: Chunking • phone number sequence of 47-1-1-3-2-4 would be “chunked” into 471-1324 Mnore Mnemonics Music Mnemonics: singing your “A-B-Cs!” Name Mnemonics: ROY G. BIV = colors of the spectrum (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet.) Expression or Word Mnemonics: Parentheses, Exponents, Multiply, Divide, Add, and Subtract = Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally. Model Mnemonic: Mnany Mnore Mnemonics Rhyme Mnemonic: for the number of days in each month is: 30 days hath September, April, June, and November. All the rest have 31 Except February my dear son. It has 28 and that is fine But in Leap Year it has 29. Note Organization Mnemonics: note cards, outlines, Cornell style notes Image Mnemonics: Visualize an image to help you remember. What is a numismatist? Visualize a new mist rolling onto a beach from the ocean and beach is made of coins. Silly? Of course, but sillyography makes it is easier to remember that a numismatist is a coin collector. How about using a bad joke to help you remember? Picture two numismatists having a drink for "old dime's sake." Corny? Yes, but cornography often makes things easier to remember. And one more. . . Memory Long-Term Memory Short-Term Memory WORKING MEMORY Can you remember this? • Long term memory-storing for future use; contains representations of countless facts, experiences, and sensations • Semantic memory-knowledge of language, of meanings • Episodic memory-events from our own life. • Declarative memory-knowledge that can be called forth consciously as needed • Procedural memory-learned skills that does not require conscious recollection Memory • Sensory Memory attention Encoding/Maintenance Rehearsal • Short-Term (Working) Memory • Long-Term Memory Retrieval Let’s remember this forever! • • • • • Output-retrieving items in memory. Recognition-identify something familiar. Recall-active reconstruction of info. Eidetic - photographic memory Confabulation – memories that are a confusion of imagined events with actual events • Forgetting - info that cannot be retrieved from LTM (Long term Memory). Just for Memory • Decay-fading away of memory over time • Proactive interference- earlier memory blocks a new one. • Retroactive interference- new memory blocks old one. • Repression-forget unpleasant experience (defense mechanism) Which is the correct penny? Do you RECOGNIZE it? Chapter 11: Thinking and Language Objectives: 1. Identify the units of thought and the kinds of thinking. 2. Explain strategies for and obstacles to problem solving. The Most Intelligent Prince A king wants his daughter to marry the smartest of 3 extremely intelligent young princes, and so the king's wise men devised an intelligence test. The princes are gathered into a room and seated, facing one another, and are shown 2 black hats and 3 white hats. They are blindfolded, and 1 hat is placed on each of their heads, with the remaining hats hidden in a different room. The king tells them that the first prince to deduce the color of his hat without removing it or looking at it will marry his daughter. A wrong guess will mean death. The blindfolds are then removed. You are one of the princes. You see 2 white hats on the other prince's heads. After some time you realize that the other prince's are unable to deduce the color of their hat, or are unwilling to guess. What color is your hat? Note: You know that your competitors are very intelligent and want nothing more than to marry the princess. You also know that the king is a man of his word, and he has said that the test is a fair test of intelligence and bravery. thinking Changing and reorganizing information stored in memory to create new information The Units of Thought and Language Images, Symbols, Concepts, Prototypes, Rules image A visual representation of an event or object symbol An abstract unit of thought that represents an object or quality concept Label for a class of objects or events that have at least one attribute in common prototype A representative example of a concept rule A statement of relation between concepts 3 Kinds of Thinking: 1) Metacognition 2) Convergent Thinking 3) Divergent Thinking metacognition The awareness of one’s own cognitive processes; “thinking about your thinking” Convergent thinking A systematic and logical attempt to reach a specific goal or answer; aka “directed thinking” Divergent thinking Free flow of thoughts with no particular plan and depends more on images; aka “nondirected” Algorithm v. Heuristics PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES algorithm A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem heuristic A rule-of-thumb problem-solving strategy Mental Sets, Rigidity, Functional Fixedness OBSTACLES TO PROBLEM SOLVING Mental set A habitual strategy or pattern of problem-solving Functional fixedness The inability to imagine new functions for familiar objects CREATIVITY—ENHANCING PROBLEM SOLVING creativity The capacity to use information and/or abilities in a new and original way flexibility The ability to overcome rigidity in thinking recombination Mentally rearranging the elements of a problem to arrive at an original solution insight The sudden realization of the solution to a problem; “aha!” “Eureka!” LANGUAGE STRUCTURE language The communication of ideas through symbols and sounds that are arranged according to rules phoneme An individual sound that is a basic structural element of language syntax Language rules that govern how words can be combined to form meaningful phrases and sentences semantics The study of meaning in language