Download File - Coach James` AP Psychology

Unit III Learning and Intelligence
Chapters 9-11,13
Psychology
Unit 3: Learning and Intelligence
Critical Vocabulary
Classical Conditioning
• A learning procedure in which
associations are made between a
natural stimulus and a neutral
stimulus
Operant Conditioning
• Learning in which a certain action is
reinforced or punished, resulting in
corresponding increases or
decreases in occurrence
Social Learning
• Form of learning in
which the
organism
observes, explores,
and imitates the
behavior of others
Cognition
• Cognition is the
scientific term for "the
process of thought".
• Thought depends on
several processes &
components: images,
symbols, concepts,
prototypes, and rules
Short-term Memory
• Memory that is limited in capacity to
about seven items for a short period
of time
Sensory Memory
• Very brief memory storage
immediately following initial
stimulation of a receptor
Long-term Memory
• Refers to the storage of information
in the human mind over extended
periods of time
Recall
• The type of memory retrieval in which a
person reconstructs previously learned
material without the aid of or with very
few external cues
• E.g.—What year was the Declaration of
Independence written?
Recognition
• The type of memory retrieval in
which a person is required to identify
an object, idea, or situation as one
he or she has experienced before
• E.g.—What year was the Declaration of
Independence written? A. 1774 B.
1776 C. 1970
D. 1965
Language
• A system of communication that
involves using rules to make and
combine symbols in ways that
produce meaningful words and
sentences
Creativity
• The ability to use information, invent
new solutions to problems, or create
original and ingenious materials
Learning
• A Relatively permanent change in behavior
that results from experience
– 1)Inferred from a change in behavior or
performance
– 2)Results in an inferred change in memory
– 3)The result of experience
– 4)Relatively permanent
Classical Conditioning
• Mental associations are made between a
natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus
– Associating one stimulus with another
– In classical conditioning a person’s or an animal’s
OLD response becomes attached to a NEW
stimulus
Classical Conditioning
• IVAN PAVLOV—Does the name Pavlov ring a
bell??
• While studying the digestive patterns of dogs,
Pavlov noticed that just the sight and smell of
food made the dogs salivate, so he began to
study this and theorized CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
Classical Conditioning
• Pavlov’s Dogs:
– A tuning fork is struck
– Food/meat powder is placed on the dog’s tongue
– Dog’s salivate
– Repeat several times
– Tuning fork is stuck
– Dog’s begin salivating at just the sound of the bell
with out the presence of the food
Pavlov’s Dogs
Classical Conditioning
• General Principles:
– N: A stimulus that does not initially elicit a response,
but can cause a formally unrelated response
– UCS: an event that elicits a certain, predictable
response without previous training
– UCR: an organisms natural or automatic response to a
stimulus
• REFLEXES!!!
– CS: the stimuli that causes the reaction/response after
conditioning
– CR: the learned reaction
Classical Conditioning
• How does an animal or person acquire a
conditioned response??
• A CS is paired with an UCS multiple times so
that the CR is acquired and strengthened
N + UCS = UCR
CS + UCS = CR
Classical Conditioning
• Sooo….how then were Pavlov’s Dogs
conditioned???
UCS
CS
UCR
CR
Presentation
of the food or
meat powder
The Tuning
fork or bell
Salivation:
food causes
the dogs to
salivate
regardless of
any
conditioning
The dogs hear
a bell and
instantly
salivate
N (bell) + UCS (food) = UCR (salivation)
CS (bell) + UCS (food) = CR (hear bell, salivate)
Classical Conditioning
• Common Conditional Responses:
(1)N + UCS =
UCR
(2)CS + UCS=
CR
Fear of the
Dentist’s
Drill
Sound of
the Drill
Drilling into
Teeth
Tension/
Pain
Sound of
Drill/Sight
of Dentist
Drill into
Teeth
Hear
Drill/See
Dentist,
Feel
Tension and
Pain
Advertising
Slogan/
Song
Catchy
Jingle or
Slogan
Product
Favorable
Feeling
Catchy
Jingle or
Slogan
Product
Hear Song
or Slogan,
Get a
Favorable
Feeling
Loathing for
the Police
Flashing
Police
Lights
Speeding
Ticket
Anger/Fear
Flashing
Police
Lights
Speeding
Ticket
See
Flashing
lights, fell
anger and
fear
Can you think of more from your own experience???!?!???!!
Classical Conditioning
• If I am trying to condition say…MY STUDENTS,
how can I create the strongest association
between the CS and the UCS?!?!
• The Strongest associations are made when the
UCS is presented ½ second before the UCR
WHY?!
Classical Conditioning
• Say you wake up daily to the same alarm
sound on your phone daily…this sound soon
becomes very unpleasant and brings about a
feeling of dread. What happens when you
hear a similar sound throughout the day?
– You shutter and have that same feeling of
unpleasant dread
• GENERALIZATION
Classical Conditioning
• Generalization: An animal responds to a
second stimulus similar to the original CS
without prior training with the second
stimulus
• EX. Pavlov’s tests with circles and ovals
• Can you think of ways this process is used in
everyday life?!
Classical Conditioning
Stimulus DISCRIMINATION: the ability of an
animal to respond differently to different
stimuli—The process that occurs if two stimuli
are sufficiently distinct from one another that
one evokes a conditioned response but the
other does not
EXAMPLES?!
Classical Conditioning
• If a response can be learned or conditioned, can
it become EXTINCT?!
• YES—EXTINCTION occurs when the CS is
presented over time without the UCS causing a
Disappearance of the CR
• Can it come back?! YES– Spontaneous Recovery:
when a CR has become extinct, it does not mean
it is completely gone, it may reappear but NOT at
its original strength
Classical Conditioning
• Classical Conditioning and Human Behavior:
– 1)Emotional Responses
– 2)Fear Responses
– 3)Taste Aversions
Little Albert
By: John Watson
Classical Conditioning
In what areas can humans
benefit from classical
Conditioning?!
Classical Conditioning
How are we Classically
Conditioned in our
Everyday lives?!
Classical Conditioning in TV
• The Office
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WfZfMIHwSkU
• The Big Bang Theory
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qy_mIEnnlF4&fea
ture=related
• Super Size Me
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gpRQhVd63Y8
Operant Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning: Learning in which a
certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting
in corresponding increases or decreases in
occurrence
• How to control one’s environment to elicit a
reward or avoid a punishment
• Learning from the consequences of Behavior!
• Will the subject operate or respond the same
way in the future??
Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
• The process in which a • The study of how
person’s NATURAL
VOLUNTARY behavior is
responses become
affected by its
attached to a new
consequences
stimulus
• Learner operates on
• Reacting to a person’s
their environment
environment
• NO stimulus
• Natural to salivate at food,
this becomes attached or
associated with the bell
• Learning from the consequences
of behavior choices
Operant Conditioning
• REINFORCEMENT: Stimulus or event that
follows a response and increases the likelihood
that the response will be repeated
Positive
Negative
Reinforcement
Reinforcement
Occurs when
Occurs when
something the animal something Unpleasant
wants is ADDED after
is TAKEN AWAY or
the action
AVOIDED if the animal
performs the action
Teach a dog a trick
with treats!
Punish a dog with
yelling
Operant Conditioning
BEHAVIOR
Positive
Reinforcement
Negative
Reinforcement
CHANGED Behavior
Reinforcement MUST occur BEFORE there is a
CHANGE in Behavior
Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner
1950
The Skinner Box: Taught a
rat to respond to lights
and sounds in a
specially enclosed box
A rat, placed in the Skinner
box, must learn how to
solve the problem of
how to get food to
appear in a cup.
Operant Conditioning
Primary Reinforcers Secondary Reinforcers
• Satisfies a biological
need
– Hunger
– Thirst
– Sleep
• One that has been
paired with a primary
reinforcer and through
classical conditioning
has acquired value and
reinforced
– MONEY
MORE EXAMPLES?!?!
What is a reinforcer for one person is not necessarily the
same for another person
Operant Conditioning
CHIMP-O-MAT
• WOLF– to get food, chimps
must 1st get a poker chip to
place in a slot to get food.
Soon chimps begin to save,
spend, and steal chips like
humans do with money
Poker chips as a Secondary
Reinforcer
• Poker chips become
conditioned reinforcers for
the chimps
Operant Conditioning
Continuous
Reinforcement Schedule
• Behavior that is
reinforced EVERY time it
occurs
• To get the best behavior
reinforcement every
time
• Quick extinction is the
reinforcement stops
•
•
•
•
**Reinforcement is dependent
on FREQUENCY and TIMING
Partial Reinforcement
Schedule
Positive behavior occurs
only intermittently
Acquired more slowly,
but more persistent
Behavior lasts longer
Animals respond
differently to each
Partial reinforcement
schedules
Operant Conditioning
Schedules of Reinforcement—The Skinner Box
Fixed-Ratio: behavior is reinforced after a set number of
responses
Food given after a fixed number of responses
Variable-Ratio: Reinforcement is provided after a variable
number of responses
Number of responses required to get food changes each time
Fixed-Interval: Reinforcement is based on a time schedule
Food given after a certain amount of time elapses
Variable-Interval: Reinforcement is provided from time to
time at a variable rate
Amount of time required to get food changes each time
Operant Conditioning
• FIXED RATIO: getting paid per jobs done; sell
this much, get this much; 5 fouls= ejection
from basketball
• VARIABLE RATIO: slot machines;
telemarketing—never know when response
will happen next; the more you try, the more
you get
Operant Conditioning
• Fixed-Interval: test cycle of 9 week course 
about one test per week: study really hard
right before the test, but not as much
afterwards; pay-check cycle
• Variable-Interval: calling a friend, but getting
a busy signal and calling back until they
answer; Slow, but Steady
Operant Conditioning
• INTERVAL SCHEDULES = TIME
• RATIO SCHEDULES = # of RESPONSES
• Variable  Less extinction; most human
relationships reinforced this way
Operant Conditioning
•
•
•
•
Negative Reinforcement
A painful or unpleasant stimulus is removed
Follows and negates a behavior  Takes away
Escape or avoidance
behavior is repeated and increases in
frequency
• 2 Types: ESCAPE CONDITIONING: training and
organism to remove or terminate an
unpleasant stimulus & AVOIDANCE
CONDITIONING: prevent an unpleasant
stimulus before it starts
OPERANT CONDITIONING
PUNISHMENT
• An unpleasant consequence occurs after a
behavior, decreasing the frequency of the
behavior
• Behavior that is punished decreases or is NOT
repeated
• CONS: 1) unwanted side effects 2) avoidance of
punisher 3) may only suppress, but not diminish
behavior 4) must be paired with positive coaching
and modeling to truly work
Operant Conditioning
Negative Reinforcement
1. Unpleasant stimulus
Punishment
1. Introducing an unpleasant
stimulus
2. Removal of unpleasant
stimulus
EX: shocking
EX: Loud noise in study area,
move to a new study area
and from now on avoid the
loud place
2. Withholding a pleasant
stimulus
EX: Not allowed to have
dessert
Operant Conditioning
What are some reasons to avoid
punishment situations, and instead
rely on positive reinforcement?
Operant Conditioning
How could a therapist using classical or
operant conditioning help cigarette
smokers quit smoking?
Operant Conditioning
Describe two TV or radio commercials
and how they use classical or
operant conditioning.
Social Learning
Social Learning: The 3rd type of
Learning
What are the 1st and 2nd?
Explain them!
Social Learning
• Social Learning, consisting of cognitive
learning and modeling, involves how people
make decisions and act upon the information
available to them
Social learning is the Process of altering
behavior by observing and imitating the
behavior of others
Social Learning
The Bobo Doll
Albert BANDURA’s
experiment with
modeling
An adult modeled extreme
aggression towards the
doll, and when left alone
the children who
observed this did as well
Social Learning
BOBO DOLL
Bandura
• http://video.google.co
m/videoplay?docid=4586465813762682933
#
Social Learning
• There are 2 types of Social Learning
Cognitive Learning
Modeling
Social Learning
• Cognitive Learning: is a form of altering
behavior that involves mental processes and
may result from observation or imitation
• How our brain and biological makeup enables
us to learn
Social Learning
• Edward Tomlin’s Cognitive
Map of Mazes
• A rat was placed in a maze
with food at the opposite
side, the rat began to learn
how to take the quickest
path to the food every time,
even when the route was
altered.
• The rat had developed a
cognitive map of the maze
Social Learning
Cognitive Maps
A mental picture of
spatial relationships
or relationships
between events
What do you have a
cognitive map of?!
Draw on your COGNITIVE
MAP of Marcus to draw a
physical map with a
partner!
Social Learning
• Behavioralism deals mostly with OBSERVABLE
behavior, however…
• LATENT LEARNING is learning that is NOT
demonstrated by an immediate, observable
change in behavior
• This is learning that may occur in the absence of
reinforcement, but is only seen when a reinforcer
is present….EXAMPLES?!
Social Learning
Think back to Operant Conditioning, learning
is based on our reactions to the
consequences of our behaviors…What if
however, our actions and behaviors have no
effect? What would happen to our
behavior?
Social Learning
• Learned Helplessness [Laziness]: a condition in
which repeated attempts to control a situation
fail, resulting in the belief that the situation is
uncontrollable
• If rewards come without effort, a person never
learns to work!
Social Learning
What would a person’s
response likely be to learned
helplessness?!
Social Learning
1) Stability—Helplessness that results from a
permanent characteristic
1) Temporary—I did bad because I was tiered
2) Stable—I always do bad
2) Globality—I am just dumb; I am bad at
everything
1) Internality—Thinking or blaming the problem
on yourself, rather than external factors
Social Learning
MODELING—The 2nd type of Social
Learning
Modeling is learning by imitating others;
copying behavior
3 types: Modeling, Observable Learning, and
Disinhibition
Social Learning
3 Types of Modeling Wall Chart:
In 3 groups, we will create a chart that illustrates
the three types of Modeling
Define the type, give an example, and
demonstrate it
Social Learning
• Modeling– the behavior of others simply
increases the chances that we will do the
same thing
• No new learning is really occurring, we just
use old responses in new situations based on
trends, peers, etc.
Social Learning
• OBSERVABLE LEARNING– imitation; watch
someone do something and then you are able
to reproduce it again when you could not
before
• Each person is affected differently by their
observations—violent games/movies elicit
different responses from different kids
Social Learning
• DISINHIBITION—when an observer watches
someone else engage in a threatening activity
without punishment, the observer may find it
easier to engage in that behavior later
• How can this be both good and bad?!
Memory and Thinking
FLASHBULB
MEMORY
9/11/01
Where were you? What were you doing?
Memory
What is Memory??
– Memory-storage and retrieval of what
has been learned or experienced.
INPUT-Information coming IN.
the process
by which
information is
maintained
over a period
of time
Retrieval
the
transforming
of
information
so the
nervous
system can
process it
Storage
Encoding
Memory
the process of
obtaining
information
that has been
stored in
memory
Memory
• Encoding: using the sense to remember
information: ACOUSTIC CODES, VISUAL CODES,
SEMANTIC CODES
• Storage: maintaining info over time;
information can be stored for a life time or just
a few seconds depending on the effort put into
encoding it
• Retrieval: bringing the stored info back to
mind
CENTRAL PROCESSING
• Sensory Storage-information is held for a second
or two.
• Short term memory-information is kept in the
mind as long as you repeat it. [limited in capacity]
• A. rehearsal-repeat information to keep in
memory.
• B. chunking-organize information into a collection
or category…makes it easier to remember
Mnemonics: Chunking
• phone number
sequence of 47-1-1-3-2-4
would be
“chunked” into
471-1324
Mnore Mnemonics
Music Mnemonics: singing your “A-B-Cs!”
Name Mnemonics: ROY G. BIV = colors of the spectrum (Red, Orange, Yellow,
Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet.)
Expression or Word Mnemonics: Parentheses, Exponents, Multiply, Divide,
Add, and Subtract = Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally.
Model Mnemonic:
Mnany Mnore Mnemonics
Rhyme Mnemonic: for the number of days in each month is:
30 days hath September, April, June, and November.
All the rest have 31
Except February my dear son.
It has 28 and that is fine
But in Leap Year it has 29.
Note Organization Mnemonics: note cards, outlines,
Cornell style notes
Image Mnemonics: Visualize an image to help you remember.
What is a numismatist? Visualize a new mist rolling onto a beach from the ocean and
beach is made of coins. Silly? Of course, but sillyography makes it is easier to
remember that a numismatist is a coin collector.
How about using a bad joke to help you remember? Picture two numismatists having
a drink for "old dime's sake." Corny? Yes, but cornography often makes things easier
to remember.
And one more. . .
Memory
Long-Term
Memory
Short-Term
Memory
WORKING
MEMORY
Can you remember this?
• Long term memory-storing for future use;
contains representations of countless facts,
experiences, and sensations
• Semantic memory-knowledge of language,
of meanings
• Episodic memory-events from our own life.
• Declarative memory-knowledge that can be
called forth consciously as needed
• Procedural memory-learned skills that does
not require conscious recollection
Memory
• Sensory
Memory
attention
Encoding/Maintenance
Rehearsal
• Short-Term
(Working)
Memory
• Long-Term
Memory
Retrieval
Let’s remember this forever!
•
•
•
•
•
Output-retrieving items in memory.
Recognition-identify something familiar.
Recall-active reconstruction of info.
Eidetic - photographic memory
Confabulation – memories that are a
confusion of imagined events with actual
events
• Forgetting - info that cannot be retrieved
from LTM (Long term Memory).
Just for Memory
• Decay-fading away of memory over time
• Proactive interference- earlier memory blocks a
new one.
• Retroactive interference- new memory blocks
old one.
• Repression-forget unpleasant experience
(defense mechanism)
Which is the correct penny? Do you
RECOGNIZE it?
Chapter 11: Thinking and
Language
Objectives:
1. Identify the units of thought and the kinds of
thinking.
2. Explain strategies for and obstacles to problem
solving.
The Most Intelligent Prince
A king wants his daughter to marry the smartest of 3 extremely intelligent
young princes, and so the king's wise men devised an intelligence test.
The princes are gathered into a room and seated, facing one another, and are
shown 2 black hats and 3 white hats. They are blindfolded, and 1 hat is
placed on each of their heads, with the remaining hats hidden in a different
room.
The king tells them that the first prince to deduce the color of his hat without
removing it or looking at it will marry his daughter. A wrong guess will mean
death. The blindfolds are then removed.
You are one of the princes. You see 2 white hats on the other prince's heads.
After some time you realize that the other prince's are unable to deduce
the color of their hat, or are unwilling to guess. What color is your hat?
Note: You know that your competitors are very intelligent and want nothing
more than to marry the princess. You also know that the king is a man of his
word, and he has said that the test is a fair test of intelligence and bravery.
thinking
Changing and
reorganizing
information stored
in memory to
create new
information
The Units of Thought and
Language
Images, Symbols, Concepts,
Prototypes, Rules
image
A visual representation of an event
or object
symbol
An abstract
unit of
thought that
represents an
object or
quality
concept
Label for a class of
objects or events
that have at least
one attribute in
common
prototype
A
representative
example of a
concept
rule
A statement of
relation
between
concepts
3 Kinds of Thinking:
1) Metacognition
2) Convergent Thinking
3) Divergent Thinking
metacognition
The awareness
of one’s own
cognitive
processes;
“thinking about
your thinking”
Convergent thinking
A systematic
and logical
attempt to
reach a specific
goal or answer;
aka “directed
thinking”
Divergent thinking
Free flow of
thoughts with
no particular
plan and
depends more
on images; aka
“nondirected”
Algorithm v. Heuristics
PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES
algorithm
A step-by-step
procedure for
solving a
problem
heuristic
A rule-of-thumb
problem-solving
strategy
Mental Sets, Rigidity, Functional Fixedness
OBSTACLES TO PROBLEM SOLVING
Mental set
A habitual
strategy or
pattern of
problem-solving
Functional fixedness
The inability to
imagine new
functions for
familiar objects
CREATIVITY—ENHANCING
PROBLEM SOLVING
creativity
The capacity to
use information
and/or abilities
in a new and
original way
flexibility
The ability to
overcome
rigidity in
thinking
recombination
Mentally
rearranging the
elements of a
problem to
arrive at an
original solution
insight
The sudden
realization of
the solution to
a problem;
“aha!”
“Eureka!”
LANGUAGE STRUCTURE
language
The communication of ideas through
symbols and sounds that are
arranged according to rules
phoneme
An individual
sound that is a
basic structural
element of
language
syntax
Language rules that govern how
words can be combined to form
meaningful phrases and sentences
semantics
The study of meaning in language