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AP BIOLOGY STUDY GUIDE
REVIEW AND ANIMAL BEHAVIOR
1) BIOLOGICAL THEMES (depicted on page 27)
A. The cell (8,98-99)
1. Describe the basic structure of all cells and distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells
B. Heritable information (7-8, 86-89)
1. Explain the basic structure of DNA and how it encodes information to build proteins. Use a
specific example.
2. If a DNA strand has the sequence A-G-T-C-C-T, what would the complementary DNA strand
be?
C. Emergent properties (2-5,9-10)
1. Describe what is meant by an “emergent property.” Explain how the properties of life (pg. 3)
arise from seemingly nonliving parts
D. Regulation (11-12,831-833)
1. Distinguish between negative and positive feedback
2. Define homeostasis and relate negative feedback to it
E. Interaction with the environment (6, 821-822)
1. Describe 2 ways in which organisms interact with biotic or abiotic factors
2. Describe 2 ways in which organisms exchange materials with the surrounding environment
F. Energy and life (6,828-829)
1. Explain why energy is ESSENTIAL to sustaining life
2. Describe several strategies to harvest and conserve energy autotrophs endotherms
ectotherms
G. Unity and Diversity (12-15)
1. Describe the 3 domains of life and any kingdoms embedded in those domains
2. Describe how all life is united and what process accounts for the diversity of life
H. Evolution (15-19)
1. Describe the 2 main points articulated in Darwin’s Origin of Species
2. Explain observations and evidence that led to each of Darwin’s inferences
3. Use finches to describe how natural selection leads to adaptive radiation
I. Structure and function (823-827)
1. For each of the following tissue types, describe how the form (structure) allows a particular
job (function) to be carried out: simple squamous epithelial, skeletal muscle, nervous
J. Scientific inquiry (19-25)
1. Distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning
2. Explain precisely what a hypothesis is and what it is NOT
3. Explain the necessity of a control in an experiment
4. Explain the limits of scientific inquiry
K. Science, Technology, and Society (25-26,95-96)
1. Describe the different methods used to examine microscopic life and structures. What are
the limits of these methods
2) BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY – Chapter 2 (32-45)
A. What is the relationship between elements and compounds?
B. Discuss the arrangement of subatomic particles, electrons, protons, and
neutrons in the nucleus and energy levels of an atom.
C. How does the energy level position of an electron relate to the amount of
potential energy it possesses?
D. What is the significance of the valence electrons?
E. Distinguish between covalent and polar covalent bonds. How does each
type of bond form, and what are the properties of these bonds?
nonpolar, electronegativity
F. Distinguish between structural formulas and molecular formulas. Use both methods to show
AP BIOLOGY
review topic
 = other assignment
Lettered reading assignment =1 points Genetic problem=1 points
Concept map assignment=1 points
Lab bench quiz=3 points
a molecule of ammonia, consisting of one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of hydrogen.
G. What is an ion, and how do ions form? cation anion
H. Summarize the nature of the important weak bonds: hydrogen bond
Van der Waals Interactions and hydrophobic interaction;
I. Write a balanced chemical equation describing a chemical reaction.
J. Define what is meant by equilibrium in a chemical reaction.
3) WATER – Chapter 3 (47-56)
A. Diagram 2 water molecules to show how they form hydrogen bonds and explain why it is a polar
molecule.
B. Use the polarity of water to explain why water molecules display the properties of cohesion,
surface tension, and adhesion.
C. Identify the parts of an aqueous solution: solute, solvent
D. The book says that substances with an affinity for water hydrophilic. Would you expect such
substances to be made out of polar or nonpolar molecules? Why? What about hydrophobic
substances?
E. Describe the process of dissolving for an ionic substance such as salt, and a polar molecular
substance such as sugar.
F. Discuss how the concentration of a solution is expressed in Molarity. Exactly what is meant by
the phrase “a 1 molar solution"? mole, molecular weight
G. Describe the dissociation of water molecules. Use an equation to illustrate. hydrogen ion
hydroxide ion hydronium ion
H. How do acids and bases change the concentrations in water of the hydrogen and hydroxide
ions?
I. What is a buffer? What purpose does a buffer serve?
4) BIOCHEMISTRY – Chapter 4,5 (58-86)
A. What is organic chemistry? How is that different from the common use of the term “organic” to
mean methods of farming without using chemical fertilizers and sprays.
B. Show the electron structure of carbon in any sort of diagram you wish.
C. What is it about carbon’s electron structure that makes it such a versatile atom?
D. What, in general, is a functional group? For each of the following functional groups, draw a
diagram and describe the chemical properties of the group: hydroxyl, sulfhydryl, carboxyl,
amine, phosphate.
E. Use a disaccharide to illustrate the joining of monomers by dehydration
synthesis and their digestion through hydrolysis.
F. Give examples of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides. Draw a linear and ring structure for a hexose sugar simple sugars
sucrose
starch
G.Illustrate the formation of a fat molecule by dehydration synthesis and
its digestion by hydrolysis.
glycerol
fatty acid
H. Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. What useful purposes do fats serve
in organisms?
I. Sketch and label the structure of a phospholipid. Identify the function of
phospholipids.
hydrophilic head
hydrophobic tails
J. Summarize the following functions of proteins in living things:
structural
transport
antibodies
enzymes
K. Diagram the main parts of an amino acid: central carbon, amino group,
carboxyl group, side chain (R group) Illustrate the assembly of a polypeptide by dehydration
synthesis andits disassembly by hydrolysis.
peptide bond
L. Discuss the four levels of protein conformation: primary, secondary (alpha (
helix, or beta ( ) pleated sheet), tertiary & quaternary structures, denaturation
1
ANIMAL BEHAVIOR
5) 51 overview, 51.1, 51.2, 51.3, 51.4 (1106-1120)
A. Define behavior and describe how it is studied, particularly in natural environments.
Ethology
B. Distinguish between proximate and ultimate causes in the study of behavior.
C. Discuss the function of fixed action patterns (FAPs) and imprinting in animal
behavior. Give specific examples
sign stimulus
D. Summarize the “nature vs. nurture” argument and misconception. Define an innate
behavior and describe how a scientist studies whether a behavior is innate or not.
Use the example on pg.1112-1113.
E. Describe examples of animal directed movements, signals, and communication.
Kinesis taxis pheromone
F. How do ethologists define learning? Describe habituation, spatial learning, and
cognitive maps.
G. Describe the work of Ivan Pavlov in the study of classical conditioning.
H. Describe the work of B. F. Skinner in the study of operant conditioning.
I. Use a specific example to demonstrate how behavioral traits can evolve by natural
selection
6) 51.5 (1121-1128)
Read “Animal Behavior” lab pgs 1-4, Lab Guide
DO Lab 11 LabBench tutorial, on campbellbiology.com Print quiz, bring for
stamp
A. Describe the cost / benefit analysis of animal foraging behavior. How is this related
to energy use and fitness?
B. Distinguish among promiscuity, polygamy, polygyny and polyandry.
C. How are mating rituals related to reproductive fitness? courtship lek
D. Describe the factors that influence mating behavior and parental careF
E. Describe specific examples of mate choice by females and male competition for
mates agonistic behavior
F. Explain how game theory solves the problem of coexisting male phenotypes in the
side-blotched lizard.
7) 51.6 (1128-1133)
A. How can altruistic behavior evolve, since it involves behavior that reduces an
individual’s fitness? kin selection reciprocal altruism coefficient of relatedness
B. Discuss the basis in evolutionary thinking for sociobiology. Is the sociobiology
position closer to the “nature” or the “nurture” side of the classic argument?
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Review 6.1, 6.2
1) 6.3, 6.4, 6.6, 6.7 (102-108, 112-118)
A. Discuss the organization of a eukaryotic nucleus, including its components: nuclear
envelope nuclear lamina chromosomes
chromatin nucleolus
B. Make a chart to summarize the structure and function of the following organelles:
ribosomes smooth ER rough ER Golgi apparatus lysosomes vacuoles .
C. Discuss the general pathway of synthesizing and secreting a protein, including the
roles of different organelles. Make a diagram to illustrate this. DNA
mRNA
transcript
nuclear pore
rough ER
ribosome
golgi apparatus vesicle
AP BIOLOGY
exocytosis cell membrane
D. What are the functions of the cytoskeleton? How do “motor molecules” function in
cell motility?
E. Describe the composition and functions of microtubules How are microtubules
related to the spindle? tubulin
F. Describe the “9+2” structure shared by eukaryotic cilia and flagella and how
microtubules work to produce motion in cilia and flagella? Give several other
examples of the functions of these organelles.
G. Discuss the composition (actin) of microfilaments and their functions in muscle
movement, cell division, pseudopod movement, and cytoplasmic streaming. myosin
H. What is the main function of intermediate filaments?
2) 6.7, 7 overview, 7.1 (118-120, 124-129)
A. Diagram and label the detailed structure of a cell wall, identifying the primary wall,
middle lamella (made of pectin), and secondary walls.
B. Discuss the functions and components of the Extra Cellular Matrix (ECM). collagen
proteoglycan fibronectin integrin
C. Describe the following intercellular junctions: plasmodesmata (in plant cells), tight
junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions.
D. How did scientist’s model of the molecular structure of biological membranes
develop from the Daveson-Danielli “sandwich” model to the current fluid-mosaic
model? How does this change in models illustrate the workings of science in
general?
E. Discuss and sketch the hypothetical molecular structure of a biological membrane
according to the fluid-mosaic model. In what way can cellular membranes be said to
be fluid?
F. Label the following on your sketch: phospholipid bilayer, proteins, cholesterol,
membrane carbohydrates extracellular matrix Write a brief summary of the functions
of each of these membrane components. Be sure to include cell-cell recognition.
3) 7.2, 7.3, 36.1 (130-134, 740-742)
Read “Diffusion and Osmosis” lab pgs 5-12, Lab Guide
DO LabBench 1, on campbellbiology.com Print quiz, bring for stamp.
A. Discuss the selective permeability of the plasma membrane. Summarize the
movement of different types of molecules across the membrane. Include in your
discussion the movement of hydrophobic molecules, small uncharged molecules,
ions, and larger polar molecules phospholipid bilayer,
transport proteins
B. Explain the movement of molecules by diffusion.
concentration gradient
passive transport
C. Predict whether a cell will gain or lose water to a surrounding medium if the medium
is hypotonic to the cell; if the medium is hypertontic to the cell; if the medium is
isotontic to the cell. Explain the movement of the water in terms of osmosis, osmotic
pressure, and osmotic concentration.
D.
How do cells maintain their water balance? osmoregulation plasmolysis
turgor (turgid)
flaccid
E. Compare and contrast simple and facilitated diffusion.
F. Define and use the terms water potential (Ψ) and pressure potential (p Ψ) to discuss
the movement of water in plant cells by osmosis. (740-742)
4) 7.4, 7.5 (134-138)
A. Discuss the way membrane potentials and electrochemical gradients are generated
by ion transport mechanisms such as the sodium-potassium pump.
B. How does cotransport work?
C. Explain how molecules can move across a membrane against their concentration
2
gradient by means of active transport.
D. Describe the movement of large molecules and droplets of liquid by means of
endocytosis and exocytosis.
phagocytosis
pinocytosis
E. Describe receptor-mediated endocytosis. How does the mechanism work, and what
is its function?
coated pits
ligands
5) 12 overview, 12.1,12.2 (218-228)
Read “Mitosis and Meiosis” lab pgs 13-15, Lab Guide
DO LabBench 3.I, on campbellbiology.com Print quiz, bring for stamp.
A. Discuss the function of cell division and describe how genetic material is organized
in chromosomes somatic cells
gametes chromatin
sister chromatids
centromere
B. Describe what major events occur during the G1, S, and G2 of interphase.
Distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis
C. Discuss the structure and function of the mitotic spindle and its related parts
centrosome centriole aster kinetochore
D. List the phases of mitosis and describe the events that characterize each phase.
Recognize these phases from diagrams or on a slide. (The cells shown on pages 222
and 223 are animal cells. The corresponding phases in plant cells are shown in a
photo on page 226. You should be able to identify the phase for every cell in this
photo.)
M (mitotic) phase
prophase
asters
centrioles
spindle
metaphase
metaphase plate
anaphase
telophase
E. Distinguish between cytokinesis in plant cells and in animal cells.
cleavage
cleavage furrow
cell plate
F. Discuss how prokaryotes carry out cell division, including how replicated DNA is
divided between the two new cells.
binary fission
6) 12.3 (228-233)
A. Discuss the molecular control system that controls the cell cycle
cell cycle control system cell cycle checkpoints G0 phase
B. How do cancer cells differ in their response to normal controls?
transformation tumor benign malignant metastasis
METABOLISM AND DIGESTION
1) 8 overview, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3 (141-150)
A. Interrelate, compare and contrast metabolism, anabolic pathways, and catabolic
pathways.
B. Discuss energy & its forms: potential and kinetic. How can energy transformations
do work?
C. Relate the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics to biological systems.
Include the concept of entropy.
D. Discuss why heat energy is not useful for doing work in biological systems.
E. Explain what makes a chemical reaction spontaneous or not.
ΔG
F. Use the concept of free energy to explain exergonic and endergonic reactions and
equilibrium. Review the Gibb’s free energy equation, ΔG = ΔH - TΔS
G. Describe the structure of ATP and explain why the “high energy” bonds of ATP are
so unstable.
H. Discuss how ATP provides the energy for cellular work through the use of
intermediates in coupled reactions. (Be sure to study figure 8.10 and 8.11)
I. How is ATP regenerated in a cell after it has been hydrolyzed to ADP and inorganic
AP BIOLOGY
phosphate? In what way can this be called a cycle?
2) 8.48.1, 8.2, 8.3 (141-150)
Read “Enzyme catalysis” lab pgs 16-20, Lab Guide
DO LabBench 2, on campbellbiology.com Print quiz, bring for stamp
A. Discuss the function of enzymes in cells. catalyst
activation energy
B. Enzymes are elegant examples of the concept of “form follows function”. Use the
specificity of enzymes to illustrate this concept. substrate
active site
induced fit
catalytic cycle
enzyme-substrate complex
C. Discuss how enzyme function is affected by the following factors:
temperature, pH, salinity, cofactors, coenzymes, competitive inhibitors.
3) 8.5 (156-157)
A. Relate the ideas of noncompetitive inhibition and allosteric regulation.
allosteric site
cooperativity
B. How is cellular metabolism regulated and organized by feeback inhibition and by
multienzyme complexes?
4)
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Chapter 41 overview, 41.1, 41.3, 41.4 (844-848, 855-862)
For what two reasons is the digestive process necessary ?
What is the chemical nature of digestion? (Review hydrolysis)
Distinguish between intracellular and extracellular digestion.
Compare and contrast gastrovascular cavities and alimentary canals.
Describe the movement of food through the digestive system through peristalsis.
Identify and describe the accessory glands of the digestive system:
salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.
G. Discuss the ingestion and swallowing of food. oral cavity salivary amylase bolus
pharynx epiglottis esophagus stomach gastric juice pepsin
H. How are the pancreas, liver and gallbladder involved in the function of the small
intestine?
I. Discuss the digestive and absorptive activities as food moves along the small
intestine. duodenum bile emulsification lipase jejunum ileum villi
microvilli lacteal hepatic portal vessel
J. Discuss the structure and function of the large intestine or colon. cecum appendix
rectum
feces diarrhea water reclamation
constipation
5) 41.2,41.5 (849-852, 862-864)
A. Discuss the three functions of the food in a healthful diet. essential nutrients
calories biosynthesis undernourishment malnourishment vitamins minerals
B. Discuss several examples of form following function in dental, stomach, and intestinal
adaptations. Discuss examples of symbiotic adaptations
CELLULAR ENERGETICS
*Cellular respiration and photosynthesis are very complex processes which are often difficult
to learn. The study guides focus on the basic purpose, inputs, outputs, and locations of each
process. At a minimum for the unit and AP exam you must understand these focuses well. I
will lecture on the processes more in depth to help you UNDERSTAND COMPLETELY.
1) 6.5, chapter 9 overview, 9.1(109-111, 160-165)
A. On a diagram of a mitochondrion, locate the following
structures and processes: outer membrane, inner membrane,
cristae, matrix,
intermembrane space,
glycolysis,
Krebs cycle,
3
electron transport
(Please note the difference in spelling and meaning
between the terms “inner membrane ” and “intermembrane space”.)
B. Describe how the form of a mitochondrion follows its function.
C. Use a sketch to identify the parts of a chloroplast: thylakoids, grana, stroma.
D. Distinguish chloroplasts from other types of plastids: amyloplast chromoplast
E. What is the function of peroxisomes ? What familiar enzyme do you think might be
abundant in these organelles?
F. Below are the overall equations for respiration and photosynthesis. Discuss the
statement: “cellular respiration and photosynthesis form a cycle of matter in the
biosphere, but do not form a cycle of energy”. Use your knowledge of
thermodynamics to construct your discussion. See fig. 9.1 p148
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H20 --> 6CO2 + 12H20 + ENERGY (36 ATP)
6CO2 + 12H20 + LIGHT ENERGY --> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H20
G. Identify the shared function of cellular respiration and fermentation. Which of
these two catabolic processes is aerobic, and which is anaerobic?
H. Define oxidation and reduction. Discuss how respiration is a redox reaction
electronegativity
redox
I. . Describe the role of NAD+ in the oxidation of food molecules in respiration.
2) 9.2, 9.3 (166-174)
A. Summarize the purpose, inputs, outputs, and location of glycolysis. Why is this
considered substrate-level phosphorylation?
B. Summarize the purpose, inputs, outputs, and location of the citric acid cycle.
C. Summarize the purpose, inputs, outputs, and location of the Electron Transport.
Why is this considered oxidative-level phosphorylation?
cytochromes
ATP synthase
chemiosmosis NAD FAD
proton-motive force oxidative phosphorylation
3) 9.5 (174-176)
Read “Cell respiration” lab pgs 21-25, Lab Guide
DO LabBench 5, on campbellbiology.com Print quiz, bring for stamp.
A. Distinguish between alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation. Which is
associated with yeast and other fungi (as well as with plant cells) under anaerobic
conditions, and which is associated with animal cells?
B. Discuss the process of fermentation on a diagram. Summarize the net ATP
yield and compare it to that of aerobic cellular respiration
4) Chapter 10 into, 10.1 (181-188)
Read “plant pigment chromatography (4A)” pg 26-27, Lab Guide
A. Differentiate between autotrophic and heterotrophic forms of nutrition. How are
photoautotrophs different from chemoautotrophs? producers
B. Describe the experimental evidence that indicated that the oxygen gas, O2,
that is produced in photosynthesis comes from water, not from carbon dioxide.
C. Discuss the two stages of photosynthesis. Identify the stage that takes place in the
thylakoids and the stage that takes place in the stroma of a chloroplast. light
reactions
Calvin cycle (or carbon fixation)
D. Compare and contrast the role of NADP in photosynthesis with the role of NAD in
cellular respiration. Include the parts played by water and sugar in both processes.
E. Discuss the properties of the electromagnetic spectrum.
- How is visible light related to the other forms of electromagnetic radiation?
- How is wavelength related to color within the visible spectrum?
- How is wavelength related to the amount of energy carried in a photon of
AP BIOLOGY
light electromagnetic radiation?
F. Explain how pigments interact with light by absorbing, transmitting, or reflecting it.
Why are plants green?
G. Distinguish between the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a and the action
spectrum for photosynthesis. Why doesn’t the action spectrum exactly match the
absorption spectrum?
chlorophyll b, carotenoids
ground state
excited state
5) 10.2, 10.3 (188 excitation of… -195)
A. Discuss the reaction of a photosynthetic pigment to absorption of a photon of light.
Explain why different pigments appear to be of different colors.
B. Describe the production of NADPH (NADPre) and ATP by the light reactions.
photosystems I and II,
P700 and P680,
cyclic and noncyclic
photophosphorylation
C. Compare and contrast electron transport in photosynthesis with electron
transport in cellular respiration.
D. Describe the manufacture of carbohydrate during the Calvin cycle (carbon fixation).
RuBP
PGAL (PGAL stands for phosphoglyceraldehyde. The book uses the
alternative name “glyceraldehyde phosphate”. You will need to remember this if you
read the book’s explanation of the Calvin cycle.)
6)
Read “photosynthesis/light reaction (4B)”
pg 27-29, Lab Guide
DO LabBench 4, on campbellbiology.com Print quiz, bring for stamp.
7) 10.4 (195-198)
A. How do C4 plants circumvent photorespiration? How does the cellular anatomy
(called Kranz anatomy) of these plants assist in the process?
bundle sheath cells
mesophyll cells
PEP carboxylase
B. Describe the mechanism that CAM plants use to allow them to close their
stomata in the daytime without resulting photorespiration.
MEIOSIS, REPRODUCTION, AND DEVELOPMENT
1) Chapter 13 overview, 13.1, 13.2, 46.2 (238-243, 967-969)
A. Distinguish between sexual and asexual reproduction.
B. Distinguish among homologous chromosomes, sex chromosome, autosomes, diploid
(2N) and haploid (N). Use diagrams to illustrate.
C. Describe how sexual life cycles vary among protists, fungi, plants, and animals.
alternation of generations. In the diagram of plants, identify which stages of the life
cycle are sexual or asexual, where mitosis or meiosis occurs, and whether the cells of
that stage are haploid or diploid. gametophyte
sporophyte
D. How do organisms with external fertilization ensure that their eggs and sperm meet
successfully? mating behaviors pheromones
E. What is the advantage of internal fertilization in an aquatic environment? Why is
internal fertilization necessary on land?
F. Distinguish between internal fertilization and internal development. Compare the
number of offspring produced and the amount of care given by animals with internal
and with external fertilization and development.
4
2) 13.3, 13.4 (243 - 249)
 Read “Pop bead meiosis", pgs 30-33, Lab Guide
DO LabBench 3.II, on campbellbiology.com Print quiz, bring for stamp
and meiosis occur (fig 13.5). Which cells are the result of meiosis and are haploid (N),
and which cells result from mitosis.
somatic
homologous chromosomes
sex chromosome
autosome
diploid (2N) gamete
fertilization
ovum
zygote
B. List and recognize the phases of meiosis I and meiosis II and describe the events
characteristic of each phase. Especially, identify the specific point at which the cell
goes from being diploid to being haploid.
synapsis
tetrad
chiasma
crossing over
C. Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis focusing mostly on the purpose of each
D. Discuss how the events that occur during meiosis and random fertilization of
gametes result in genetic variation in offspring.
genetic recombination
independent assortment
E. Relate sexual sources of genetic variation to natural selection.
3) 46.3, 46.4, 47.1 (969-975,988-991)
A. Identify the following reproductive structures on a diagram of the human male and
state their functions. testes seminiferous tubules Leydig cells scrotum
epididymis ejaculation vas deferens ejaculatory duct urethra semen seminal
vesicles prostate gland bulbourethral penis glans penis prepuce
B. Identify the following reproductive structures on a diagram of the human female and
state their functions. ovaries follicle ovulation corpus luteum oviduct (fallopian
tube) uterus endometrium cervix vagina hymen vestibule labia minora
labia majora clitoris Bartholin’s glands
C. Describe the events of spermatogenesis and oogenesis. Relate the steps of these
processes to the steps of meiosis. primary and secondary spermatocyte
spermatid
primary and secondary oocyte
ootid
D. Discuss the timing of gametogenesis in the lives of mammals, particularly human
males and females.
E. Describe the acrosomal reaction of fertilization. How is cross-species fertilization
prevented? How is polyspermy prevented within the first few seconds after fertilization?
F. Describe the cortical reaction and the formation of the fertilization membrane.
4) 32.3, 47.1 (630-633, 992-994)
A. Define and illustrate the following anatomical terms related to animals:
radial & bilateral symmetry oral aboral anterior posterior dorsal ventral
B. Describe the various germ layers how they generally develop ectoderm
endoderm archenteron mesoderm diploblastic triploblastic
C. Distinguish among coelomates, pseuodocoelomates, and acoelomates. Give
examples of each
D. Discuss between protostome and deuterostome development. Give examples of
each. 
E. Describe the events of cleavage in animal embryos. blastomeres
yolk vegetal
pole
animal pole
morula
blastocoel blastula meroblastic
holoblastic
5) 47.1 (994-1001)
A. Discuss the formation of the primary germ layers during the process of gastrulation.
gastrula invagination archenteron
blastopore ectoderm mesoderm
endoderm
AP BIOLOGY
B. Compare the meroblastic cleavage of the bird blastodisc to the holoblastic cleavage
of the frog. How is gastrulation accomplished in the bird?
primitive streak
C. Describe the development (in Chordates) of the notochord, neural plate, neural tube
and somites.
D. Summarize the organs and systems that develop from each of the three primary
germ layers. organogenesis
E. What is the origin of the four extraembryonic membranes, the chorion, amnion, yolk
sac and allantois
F. What events in the early embryology of mammal, reptile and bird provide evidence of
their evolutionary relationship? Discuss these similarities. blastocyst
trophoblast
inner cell mass
G.
How do the four extraembryonic membranes form in the mammal, and what do
they do? What is the relationship between the trophoblast, the chorion and the
placenta?
GENETICS
1) 14 overview, 14.1, 14.2 (251-260)
 Read "Genetics of Organisms" pgs 34-37, Lab Guide
DO LabBench 7, on campbellbiology.com Print quiz, bring for stamp.
A. Describe Mendel’s monohybrid crosses among pea plants. What were the typical
results of these crosses?
P generation,
F1 generation
F2 generation
test cross
B. State and explain Mendel’s Law of Segregation. Explain how this law is explained
by meiosis.
allele
dominant
recessive
C. Use genetic notation to show the following crosses and to identify the genotypes
and phenotypes (including ratios) among the offspring.
1. a homozygous green-pod plant with a homozygous yellow- pod plant
2. a homozygous green-pod plant with a heterozygous plant
3. a heterozygous plant with a homozygous yellow- pod plant
D.
Distinguish between monohybrid crosses and dihybrid crosses.
E. State Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment. Discuss how this law is also
explained by the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis.
F.
Using rolling dice as an example, explain the probability rules of Multiplication and
of Addition. Why should scientists perform many repetitions of experiments and why
results must be repeatable to be significant?
2) Problems 1-5 on page 6-7 of this packet, “Genetics Problems”.
3) 14.3, 15 overview, 15.1, 15.2 (260-264, 274-281)
A. Distinguish among dominance , incomplete dominance, and codominance. Give an
example of each.
B. Distinguish among multiple alleles, epistasis, pleiotropy, and polygenic inheritance
(quantitative characters) , give an example of each. Discuss how shades of skin and
eye color are possible.
C. What is meant by norm of reaction for a genotype? In what way are such traits
multifactorial?
D. What connection did Walter S. Sutton and others notice that led to the foundation of
the chromosome theory of inheritance?
E. Discuss the experimental evidence that led to the discovery, in the lab of Thomas H.
Morgan, of the first gene to be identified with a particular chromosome and his
evidence of gene linkage.
F. Explain how the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis can lead to recombination
of unlinked genes and of linked genes.
5
G. Distinguish between a genetic map and a linkage map of a chromosome. Explain
why the farther apart two genes are, the higher the recombination frequency would
be.
H. Discuss how data concerning the inheritance of two traits can be used to determine
whether the genes are linked or not, and if linked, how many map units apart they are
on the chromosome.
4) Problems 6-10 on page 6-7 of this packet, “Genetics Problems”.
5) 14.4, 15.3, 15.4 (282-284)
A. Discuss how gender is determined in mammals, birds, and some insects.
X-Y
Z-W
XO
haplo-diploid
B. Describe the inheritance of a sex-linked gene such as color-blindness. Why is a
recessive sex-linked gene always expressed in human males? How would this be
different in birds?
C. How are X chromosomes that condense into Barr bodies inactivated? In what way
can female mammals be described as “mosaic”?
6) Problems 11-17 on page 6-7 of this packet, “Genetics Problems”.
7) 14.4, 15.4 (265-268, 285-290)
A. Describe the inheritance, the typical population, and the symptoms of the following
disorders: cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sachs, sickle-cell anemia, phenylketonuria,
achondroplasia, Huntington’s disease.
B. Define and give examples of the following alterations of chromosome structure or
number: nondisjunction aneuploidy trisomy
monosomy
polyploidy
deletion
duplication
translocation
inversion
C.
Discuss the type of chromosomal disorder represented by the following
disorders and describe their symptoms: Down syndrome
Turner syndrome
chronic myelogenous leukemia Klinefelter syndrome cri du chat syndrome
D. Describe the inheritance of the DNA found in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
mitochondrial myopathy

8) Problems 18-21 on page 6-7 of this packet, “Genetics Problems”.
GENETIC TRANSMISSION
1) 16 overview, 16.1 (293-298)
A. Discuss the experiment performed by Frederick Griffith in 1928. How did Griffith’s
results start a controversy among biologists? transformation
B. How did Hershey and Chase show that DNA is the genetic material? bacteriophage
supernatant
C. Discuss the lines of evidence that led to Watson and Crick’s ideas for the structure
of DNA.
X-ray crystallography Chargaff’s rules
2) 16.2, 17 overview, 17.1 (293-305, 309-314)
A. A template is a pattern. How do the strands of DNA act as templates for the
formation of new DNA strands?
B. Describe the experiments of Meselson and Stahl in which they tested
the semiconservative model of DNA replication. (Study Figs. 16.10 & 16.11)
C. Why is DNA described as antiparallel?
AP BIOLOGY
D. Discuss the role of the following in the process of DNA replication.
origin of replication
helicase
single-strand binding protein (SSB)
priming/primer
DNA polymerase
leading/lagging strands
ligase
E. Describe the experiment by Beadle and Tatum that provided evidence that genes
code for enzymes. How does this relate to the one gene-one polypeptide rule.
F. In what way can DNA and RNA be said to have a “language”?
G. How many DNA bases would it take to code for a sequence of eight amino acids?
Explain your answer. triplet code
codon
reading frame
3) 17.2, 17.3, 17.4 (315-326)
A. Describe the transcription of messenger RNA on the DNA template.
RNA polymerase
promoter
transcription factors
transcription initiation complex
TATA BOX
terminator
B. Discuss the process of RNA processing. 5’cap poly A tail
intron exon snRNP
spliceosome
C. How does the existence of ribozymes alter our view of enzymes?
D. What importance does the author ascribe to introns?
domain
E. Describe the structure and function of transfer RNA
F. How is a transfer RNA matched to its specific amino acid? aminoacyl-tRNA
synthetase
G. Summarize the process of translation. Discuss the role of ribosomes in this process.
ribosomal RNA P site A site reading frame initiation
elongation
termination polyribosome
H. Find the complementary DNA, mRNA, and amino acid sequence of the following
DNA sequence (use table on pg 314) TACATGCCAATT
I. Explain how particular proteins are modified and directed to specific destinations in a
cell. signal peptide signal recognition particle SRP RNA
4) 16.2, 17.5, 17.6, 17.7 (305 Proofreading…-307, 327-331)
A. Describe how DNA is proofread during replication and then how repair enzymes
correct replication errors and mutations. mismatch repair nuclease
excision repair
B. What is the function of telomeres? Telomerase has been found in the cells of
protists and in cancer cells. How would that contribute to those cells being
“immortal”?
C. Compare and contrast protein synthesis in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
D. Define and describe the results of each of the following types of mutations. (Study fig
17.24, 17.25) point mutation
base pair substitution
insertion
deletion
frameshift
E. List the major types of mutagens and the types of mutations that they cause.
base analogues radiation
pyrimidine dimers (fig 16.17 p 290) mispairing
GENOME ORGANIZATION, CONTROL AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
1) 18.3 (346-352)
 Read "Transformation of E. Coli…" pgs 40-43, Lab Guide
Do Lab 6.I, LabBench tutorial, on campbellbiology.com print quiz, bring for stamp
A. Describe the bacterial chromosome and the plasmids of bacteria. How is the
bacterial chromosome different from a eukaryotic chromosome? nucleoid
B. Describe how transformation and transduction lead to genetic recombination in
bacteria. Distinguish between generalized and specialized transduction.
C. Explain the characteristics of plasmids and distinguish them from phages.
D. Discuss conjugation and Hfr conjugation. F plasmid F+,
F- episome
6
E. Explain the activity of transposons in bacteria.
inverted repeats direct repeats
insertion sequence
transposase
2) 20.1, 18.4, 19 overview, 19.1 (386-388, 352-356, 359-361)
A. Describe the uses of engineered plasmids as cloning vectors.
B. Summarize the steps of gene cloning described on page 368. ampR lacZ
-galactosidase
X-gal
hybridization
probe denaturation (Fig 20.4)
C. Describe the organization of bacterial genes.
promoter operon
structural gene
polycistronic operator regulatory gene repressor
D. Describe both negative and positive feedback control of operons. Include:
repressible (trp)
corepressor
inducible (lac)
CAP/ cAMP
E. Compare the arrangement of DNA in a eukaryotic chromosome with that in a
prokaryotic chromosome. (Study Fig 19.2, p 361)
chromatin
histone
nucleosome
looped domain
heterochromatin
euchromatin
F. What is the level of packing of chromatin during interphase?
G. What is the significance of the heterochromatin chromosome configuration?
3) 19.2 (362-370)
A. Identify the two problems of gene control in eukaryotes. differentiation
B. Describe the role of methylation and histone acetylation in gene regulation.
C. Diagram and explain the functions of regulatory segments of DNA associated with a
eukaryotic gene. promoter proximal and distal control elements enhancers
activators repressors and silencers DNA binding domain
D. Compare the arrangement of functionally related genes on eukaryotic chromosomes
to the arrangement of genes in prokaryotic operons. How might these scattered
genes be coordinated?
E. Describe the possible ways gene expression might be controlled during the
following: alternative splicing, RNA processing, mRNA degradation, control of
translation, processing of polypeptide products after translation, proteasomes,
4) 19.3, 19.4 (370-375)
A. How does a proto-oncogene become an oncogene and what role does it play in
cancer. Give a human example.
B. How does a mutation in a tumor suppressor gene contribute to uncontrolled cell
growth? Give an example.
C. What additional mutation is found in malignant tumors?
D. What is the relationship between cancer, retroviruses, and oncogenes? What is the
normal, healthy function of a proto-oncogene?
E. Describe the types of DNA sequences in the human genome (study fig. 19.14)
See Biotechnology Project Guide. It will explain this section and the material
you are responsible for covered on the final and AP exam (not the unit
exam).
GENETIC PROBLEMS. SHOW ALL WORK FOR FULL CREDIT.
1.In squash, an allele for fruit with white color (W) is dominant over the allele for
yellow color (w). Use a punnett square to show a cross between a homozygous
white-fruited plant and a heterozygous plant. What is the ratio of genotypes
among the offspring? What is the ratio of phenotypes?
2. A gardener has a white-fruited squash plant. He wants to breed to obtain only
pure, white-fruited offspring. He doesn’t know, however, if the plant he has is
homozygous or heterozygous. Show how he could use a test cross to find out.
3.In human beings, brown eyes (B) are dominant over blue eyes (b). Suppose a
blue eyed man marries a brown eyed woman whose father was blue eyed. What
ratio of blue to brown eyed children would be predicted for the couple? If they
have brown eyed children, would they be homozygous or heterozygous?
4. In peas, an allele for tall plants (T) is dominant over the allele for short (t) and the
allele for smooth peas (S) is dominant over the allele for wrinkled peas (s). Show
a Punnett Square for each of the following crosses, and give the ratios of
genotypes and of phenotypes among the expected offspring.
a.
TTSS X ttss
b. TtSS X Ttss
5. Use probabilities, NOT Punnett squares, to find the following:
a. the probability of a gamete with the genes aBC from an individual with the
genotype AaBBCc.
b. from the cross AaBbCC X aaBbcc, what are the probabilities of the
following offspring: AABBCC ?
aabbCc ?
AaBbCc?
6. In fruit flies, normal wings (N) are dominant over vestigial wings (n) and hairless
body (H) is dominant over hairy (h). Suppose a vestigial-winged, hairy male is
crossed with a female homozygous dominant in both traits. What would be the
nature of the F1 generation in phenotype and genotype? What would be the
genotype and phenotype ratios of the F2 generation?
7. In shorthorn cattle, there are three coat colors: red, white, and roan (a mixture of red
and white hairs). Show the mating of a roan bull and a white cow. What is the
probability of a red calf? A white calf? A roan calf?
8. In Leghorn chickens colored feathers are produced by a dominant allele, C; white
feathers are produced by the recessive c. The dominant allele, I, of another
independent gene inhibits expression of color in birds with genotypes CC or Cc.
Consequently, both C - I - and cc - - are white. A colored male is mated with a white
hen and produces many offspring all colored. Give the genotypes of both parents and
offspring.
9. If a man with blood type B, one of whose parents had blood type O, marries a woman
with blood type AB, what will be the predicted percentage of their children with blood
type B?
10. Both Mrs. Smith and Mrs. Jones had babies the same day in the same hospital.
Mrs. Smith took home a baby girl, whom she named Shirley. Mrs. Jones took home a
baby girl, whom she named Jane. Mrs. Jones began to suspect, however, that her
child had been accidentally switched with the Smith baby in the nursery. Blood tests
were made:
Mr. Smith: A
Mrs. Smith: B
Shirley: O
AP BIOLOGY
7
Mr. Jones: A
Mrs. Jones: A
Jane: B
Had a mixup occurred? What are the genotypes for everyone?
11. If the dominant allele K is necessary for hearing and the dominant allele M of
another independent gene results in deafness no matter what other genes are
present, what percentage of the offspring produced by the cross kkMm X Kkmm will
be deaf?
12. In hogs an allele that produces a white belt around the animal’s body is dominant
over the allele for a uniform color. An allele of another independent gene produces
fusion of the two hoofs on each foot (an instance of syndactyly); it is dominant over
the allele that produces normal hoofs. Suppose a uniformly colored hog homozygous
for syndactyly is mated with a normal footed hog homozygous for the belted
character. What would be the phenotype of the F 1? Phenotype and genotype ratios
for the F2?
13. A brown-eyed man whose father was brown eyed and whose mother was blue-eyed
married a blue-eyed woman whose father and mother were both brown eyed. The
couple has a blue-eyed son. Construct a pedigree for this family. For the individuals
of whom you can be sure, give complete genotypes. For the others, list all possible
genotypes.
14. Red-green colorblindness is inherited as a sex-linked recessive. If a colorblind
woman marries a man who has normal vision, what would be the expected
phenotypes of their children?
chromosome?
.
19. The diagram shows three generations of the pedigree of deafness in a family.
Shading indicates deafness. How is the condition inherited? Defend your selection.
a. dominant autosomal b. recessive autosomal c. X-linked recessive
d.
X-linked dominant
e. Y-linked
.20. Two fruit flies are mated, and among the offspring there are 145 hairy flies and 372
hairless. What are the most likely genotypes of the parents in this cross? There are
2
two possibilities. Show a Chi test of each and choose the best one based on the
results of the test. (see probability table, next page.)
21. What are the genotypes of a yellow male rat and a black female that, when mated,
produce 46 gray and 53 yellow offspring? Does the Chi square test bear you out?
15. Suppose that nondisjunction resulted in the production of new individuals with the
following chromosomal abnormalities: XO, XXX, XYY, XXXX, XXXY, XXXXY. What
would be the sex of each of these individuals for humans and for Drosophila? How
many Barr bodies would be in the cells of humans with these combinations?
16. In fruit flies, there is a dominant allele for gray body and a dominant allele of another
gene for normal wings. The recessive alleles of these two genes result in black body
color and vestigial wings, respectively. Flies that are homozygous for gray body and
normal wings were crossed with flies that had black bodies and vestigial wings. The
F1 offspring were then test crossed (review the meaning of this term) with the
following results among the offspring:
Gray body, normal wings: 236
Gray body, vestigial wings: 50
black body, normal wings: 61
black body, vestigial wings: 253
Are the genes for body color and wing shape linked? If so, how many map units apart
are they on the chromosome?
17. In rabbits, the dominant allele of a gene produces spotted body color, and the
recessive allele produces solid body color. The dominant allele of another gene
produces short hair, and the recessive allele produces long hair. Rabbits
heterozygous for both characteristics were mated with homozygous recessive
rabbits with the following offspring:
spotted, short hair
96
solid, long hair
80
solid, short hair
14
spotted, long hair
10
What evidence for linkage is shown in this cross? Give the percentage of
recombination and the map distance between the genes.
18. The recombination frequency between linked genes A and B is 40 percent;
between B and C, 20 percent; between C and D, 10 percent; between C and A, 20
percent; between D and B, 10 percent. What is the order of the genes on the
AP BIOLOGY
EVOLUTION
Review Chapter 22, you will be responsible for this material, but no homework is
assigned on it
1) 23 overview, 23.1, 23.2, 23.3 (454-466)
Read through “Hardy Weinberg Theorem and Equilibrium” (456-458). This will be
explained in class.
A. Describe the formation of population genetics and its relation to the modern
synthesis. Define the important terms related to these fields: population gene pool
allele frequency
B. Relate the sources of genetic variation in a population to your understanding of
Mendelian and population genetics. Discuss mutation and subsequent distribution of
new genes through recombination.
C. Campbell says that each of five potential agents of microevolution is a deviation from
one of the Hardy-Weinberg conditions for equilibrium. Explain what he means for
8
each of the following:
genetic drift (including bottleneck and founder effects)
gene flow
mutation
nonrandom mating
natural selection
D. Discuss the types of variation that exist within and between populations:
morph / polymorphism geographical variation
cline
E. Discuss the concept of fitness. Suppose a type of tropical fish with bright blue
markings produces 200 eggs per season. Fish of the same species but with a genetic
variation that produces brown markings produce 120 eggs per season. What is the
relative fitness?
F. Justify the statement, “natural selection acts on phenotype, not genotype.”
G. Distinguish among stabilizing selection, directional selection, and
diversifying (disruptive) selection.
organism using comparisons of amino acid sequences in proteins and by comparing
the DNA of organisms. See Fig 25.6 & 7 DNA-DNA hybridization
restriction mapping
DNA sequencing
mtDNA
E. Review the traditional taxonomic hierarchy. domain
kingdom phylum class
order family genus species. Distinguish among monophyletic, polyphyletic, and
paraphyletic taxa. Which of these types of taxa most accurately reflect evolutionary
relationships?
F. How do cladograms and phylograms differ in the ways they classify organisms?
clade
outgroup comparison shared primitive characters
synapomorphies (shared derived characters)
G. Discuss how a molecular clock is used to establish evolutionary relationships. Why
do some scientists doubt the validity of the molecular clock idea?
2) 23.4, 24 overview, 24.1 (466-470)
 Read “Population genetics and evolution” pgs 49-52, lab guide
DO Lab 8 LabBench tutorial, on campbellbiology.com Print quiz, bring for stamp.
A. Discuss how variation is maintained within a population through diploidy and
balanced polymorphisms. Include the mechanisms that produce polymorphisms:
heterozygote advantage, hybrid vigor, and frequency-dependent selection.
B. Speculate on the idea of neutral variation. Please do not use words like “purpose”
in your answer. Why do you think I said that?
C. How can sexual selection shape evolution in a population? sexual dimorphism
D. Reflect on the question, “Does evolution fashion perfect organisms?”
5) 26 overview, 26.1, 26.3 (512-516, 521-523)
A. Describe the conditions thought to have existed on the prebiotic earth. Describe the
hypothesis of A. I. Oparin and J. B. S. Haldane concerning the formation of organic
molecules under those conditions.
B. What laboratory evidence was provided by Miller and Urey in support of Oparin’s
hypothesis? What substances were produced in their experiment and in other
subsequent experiments?
C. Discuss the hypotheses and experimental evidence concerning the formation
of polymers and of protobionts.
coacervates microspheres liposomes
A. What evidence leads scientists to the idea of an “RNA world”, an early time in
which the first genetic material was RNA instead of DNA? Why is the recent
discovery that RNA is autocatalytic important to this idea? ribozymes
D. How could natural selection begin acting on RNA molecules in a pre-cellular
environment?
E. What could have been the advantage to early cells of storing their genetic
information in DNA once DNA appeared?
F. What are some alternative hypotheses within the scientific community about the
origin of life and the origin of genetic material?
G. What are stromatolites, and to what are they a clue?
3) 24 INTRO, 24.1, 24.2 (472-482)
A. Distinguish between anagenesis (phyletic evolution) and cladogenesis.
B. What is the basis of the biological species concept?
C. Describe the barriers that tend to prevent interbreeding between species once
speciation has taken place (reproductive isolation).
prezygotic: habitat, behavioral, temporal, mechanical, and gametic isolation
postzygotic: reduced hybrid viability or fertility, hybrid breakdown
D. Define and differentiate among the following alternative species concepts:
morphological
paleontological
ecological
phylogenetic
Why is it difficult to define the idea of species?
E. Describe how allopatric speciation takes place.
geographic isolation
F. Describe what happens in sympatric speciation.
autopolyploidy allopolyploidy
G. Use the example of the “silversword alliance” to explain adaptive radiation and the
evidence for it.
H. Explain Stephen J Gould’s and Niles Eldredge’s theory of punctuated equilibrium.
What evidence led Gould and Eldredge to this theory?
4) 24.3, 25 overview, 25.1, 25.2, 25.3, 25.5 (482-488, 491-500, 506-507)
 READ "Island Biogeography...." p 53-57, lab guide
A. Discuss the way small changes in developmental genes can produce large changes
in organisms’ phenotypes. allometric growth
paedomorphosis heterochrony
homeosis
B. Since evolution is not a ladder of organisms climbing toward a predetermined goal,
what is it that produces trends such a great size in dinosaurs? Put this in the context
of punctuated equilibrium and species selection.
C. Discuss and define the concepts of homology, analogy, and convergence.
How could DNA analysis be used to distinguish homologous similarities from
analogous ones? How do these similarities evolve?
D. Discuss how scientists establish taxonomic/evolutionary relationships among
AP BIOLOGY
THE DIVERSITY OF LIFE (see pg. of supplemental assignments)
PLANTS
1) 35 overview, 35.1,35.2, 35.3, 35.4 (712-728)
A. Draw a labeled diagram to describe the basic organization of a flowering plant. Use
diagrams to identify the following parts of an angiosperm roots, taproot, fibrous roots,
shoot system, stem, node, internode, terminal bud, axillary bud, leaves, petiole, vein
B. Describe how various forms of roots, stems, and leaves follow its function
C.Identify the various tissues of a young stem and discuss their functions. Distinguish
between the arrangements in eudicot stems and monocot stems. parenchyma,
collenchyma, sclerenchyma, epidermis, vascular bundles, xylem, phloem, pith.
D.Distinguish between determinate and indeterminate growth.
E. Identify the role played by meristem tissue in primary and secondary plant growth.
apical meristem lateral meristem
F. On a diagram, identify the primary zones of growth on a root tip. Discuss the main
activity or function in each zone.
root cap zone of cell division elongation zone
differentiation zone
root hairs.
9
G.
Identify root tissue layers and their functions. Distinguish monocot from
eudicot epidermis root hairs stele xylem and phloem pith cortex, secondary root
H.Identify the tissues in the cross section of a typical leaf. Relate each of these
structures to their function in photosynthesis. epidermis, cuticle, stoma, guard cells,
palisade mesophyll, spongy mesophyll, air spaces, vein, xylem, phloem.
I. Describe how plants grow in diameter. Identify the following on a diagram of a woody
stem: lateral meristem, vascular cambium, cork cambium, bark, heartwood, sapwood.
2) 36 overview, 36.1, 36.2, 36.3 (738-749)
 Read "Transpiration" Read PP 63-67, Lab Guide
DO LabBench, on campbellbiology.com Print quiz, bring for stamp.
A. Review the concept of water potential (738-742). Use this concept to describe how
water would enter the roots of a plant from the soil by osmosis.
B. Discuss the role of root pressure in causing water to rise in the stem of a plant.
C. Discuss the transpiration-cohesion theory for the movement of water up a stem.
transpiration cohesion
adhesion
water potential gradient
Divide up your group so that each person writes the terms on the post it notes
relating to one of the following topics: structure, transport, reproduction, regulation.
For your given topic, find and list connections between as many terms as you can.
The purpose of this is to give you a head start when you put together the entire map.
3) 36.4, 36.5 (749-753)
A. What is the photosynthesis transpiration compromise?
B. What mechanisms cause the opening and closing of stomata?
K+ circadian rhythm
C. What adaptations have xerophytes evolved to reduce water loss?
D.Discuss translocation of carbohydrates in the phloem of plants. What determines the
direction of movement of the materials? Source to sink
E. Describe pressure flow, the mechanism thought to cause translocation of organic
materials through phloem.
4) 38 overview, 38.1, 38.2 (771-780)
Review plant reproduction 771-775 (this was already discussed in the Diversity of
life project)
A. Discuss the pollination and double fertilization of angiosperms.
B. Describe the development of a seed from the ovule. Diagram a typical eudicot and a
typical monocot seed, labeling seed coat, embryo, hypocotyls, radicle, epicotyl, and
coleoptile.
C.What is the strict definition and functions of the “fruit”? Describe and diagram the
development of a simple, aggregate and multiple fruit and give examples.
D.What factors are required to maintain and to break seed dormancy?
E. Diagram and label the germination of a monocot and a dicot seed.
5) 39.2 (791-801)
A. Describe the evidence for plant hormones through the Darwin and Darwin, Boysen
Jenson, and Went experiments.
B. Summarize the functions of the plant hormones: auxins cytokinins
brassinosteroids gibberellins
abciscic acid
ethylene.
C. Discuss hormonal control of plant tropisms, turgor movements and flowering.
1) 42 overview, 42.1, 42.2, 42.3, 42.4 (867-883)
A. Define and give examples of organisms with each of the following: gastrovascular
cavity, open circulatory system, sinus, closed circulatory system, cardiovascular
system. Is a cardiovascular system open or closed?
B. Use a sketch to discuss the relationships among the following structures in a
vertebrate cardiovascular system: atrium
ventricle artery capillary vein
pulmonary circuit
systemic circuit double circulation
C. Distinguish among the circulatory systems of fish, amphibians, reptiles, and
mammals. For each of these, does the heart contain oxygenated blood,
deoxygenated blood or both? In each, do the two types of blood mix or not?
D. Describe the evolutionary relationships among the vertebrate circulatory systems
E. Discuss the functions of the atrioventricular valves and the semilunar valves in
maintaining the correct direction of blood flow through the heart.
F. Describe one complete cardiac cycle. systole diastole
G. Discuss the structures that initiate and coordinate each beat of the heart. sinoatrial
node atrioventricular node
bundle of His
Purkinje fibers
H. Trace the path a single blood cell would take on a trip through the heart. Imagine
that the cell begins in the fingers of the left hand, and returns to that same location
after passing through the heart and lungs. aorta
pulmonary artery
superior vena cava
inferior vena cava
right and left
atria right and left ventricles
I. Discuss how the interplay between hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure
facilitate the exchange of dissolved materials between the blood and the tissues. (see
Fig. 42.11)
J. What is the general composition of blood plasma? What are the three major roles of
plasma proteins?
K. Summarize the functions of the three different types of formed elements: red blood
cells, white blood cells, platelets
2) 42.5, 42.6., 42.7 (884-893)
 Read "Physiology of the Circulatory System" Read PP 74-79, Lab Guide
DO LabBench 10.I, on campbellbiology.com Print quiz, bring for stamp.
A. Describe the two major requirements for any gas exchange system. Discuss how
skin breathing and tracheae fulfill the requirements and how lungs fulfill the
requirements for a respiratory surface.
B. Explain how a countercurrent exchange system increases gas exchange efficiency.
C. Follow the path taken by air as it moves from the nasal cavity to the capillaries of the
lungs.
pharynx epiglottis glottis larynx
bronchi alveoli
D. Explain how mammals breathe and how breathing is controlled negative pressure
diaphragm
E. Explain the importance of respiratory pigments such as hemoglobin. How does
hemoglobin increase the affinity for the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide?
3) 43 overview, 43.1, 43.2 (898-904)
A. Discuss the ways, other than simply being a physical barrier that skin and mucus
membranes protect against infection. lysozyme
B. Describe the locations, actions, and origins of macrophages, monocytes,
eosinophils, neutrophils and natural killer cells.
C. What part does the inflammatory response play in fighting infection? See Fig 43.5 p
843 histamine
basophils
mast cells
prostaglandins, chemokines
pyrogens
D. What are the functions of the proteins interferon and complement?
GAS EXCHANGE, CIRCULATION AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
AP BIOLOGY
10
E. Distinguish between the body’s nonspecific and specific defenses. antigen
antibody
F. What is the exact nature of an antigen?
G. How are antigen receptors related to antibodies? How do these receptors and
antibodies interact with antibodies?
Make a concept map with the terms from SG 4
4) 43.2 (904-908)
A. How is the major histocompatibiliy complex (MHC) involved in distinguishing self from
non-self? How does it complicate tissue and organ transplantation?
Class I and Class II MHC molecules
cytotoxic T cell
helper T cell
B. Describe the development of the two lymphocyte cell lines: B-lymphocytes and T
lymphocytes. Where does each originate and where does each develop?
C. How is the diversity of lymphocytes achieved as they differentiate?
D. Discuss the structure of antibodies immunoglobulins (Igs)
heavy chain
light
chain
variable
constant
E. What normally happens to developing lymphocytes that have receptors for
molecules already present in the body?
F. Discuss the clonal selection and memory models by which scientists think B cells
and T cells respond to antigens during primary and secondary immune responses.
effector plasma cells memory cells
Make a concept map with the terms from SG 5
5) 43.3 (908-914)
A. Distinguish between humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity. Where do the
two systems function and against what?
B. What are cytokines?
C. Describe the interaction between an antigen-presenting cell and a helper T cell (TH)
when a new antigen is first encountered. CD4
D. Outline the function of cytotoxic T cells in the cell-mediated response.
CD8
target cell
perforin
tumor antigen
E. How is the stimulation of B cells by T-dependent antigens different from the
stimulation of B cells by T-independent antigens? How do T cells and B cells interact
in antigen recognition?
F. How are the invading pathogens actually destroyed?
neutralization
opsonization agglutination complement fixation
Make a concept map with the terms from SG 6
6) 43.3, 43.4, 43.5 (914-919)
A. Discuss active and passive immunity. vaccination
B. Discuss the immunology of the ABO and Rh blood groups. What danger can exist if
an Rh-negative woman marries an Rh-positive man?
C. Discuss the failures in the normal workings of the immune system that lead to
autoimmune diseases, cancer and allergies. allergens
anaphylaxis
D. Describe what happens in immunodeficiency disorders such as SCID and the
immunosuppression that results from Hodgkin’s disease and even some therapies.
E. What evidence indicates that physical and emotional stress affects immune
function? Through which two systems is this link made?
F. How does the HIV virus attack the immune system? Be specific. Exactly what types
of cells does it attack and what specific aspects of the system does this cripple?
opportunistic disease
Make a concept map with the terms from SG 7
AP BIOLOGY
REGULATING THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
1) 40.5, 44.2 44.3 (833-840, 927-931)
A. How and why are vertebrates grouped according to the nitrogenous waste they
secrete? How does this apply to the idea of “form follows function”?
ammonia
urea uric acid
B. Describe the three main processes of the excretory system. filtration
reabsorption secretion
C. Describe the diverse excretory systems and give examples of the organisms that
use them. protonephridium metanephridium Malpighian tubules
2) 44.4 44.5 (931-936)
 READ "Daphnia lab", pgs xx, Lab Guide
DO LabBench 10.II, on campbellbiology.com Print quiz, bring for stamp
A. Describe and diagram the structure of the vertebrate kidney. renal artery renal vein
ureter urinary bladder urethra renal cortex renal medulla nephron renal
pelvis
B. Describe the mammalian excretory process. glomerulus Bowman’s_ _capsule
podocytes proximal tubule loop of Henle distal tubule collecting duct
cortical nephrons juxtamedullary nephrons
afferent arteriole efferent arteriole peritubular capillaries vasa recta secretion
reabsorption
C. Describe the five steps of the journey of urine from the glomerulus to the collecting
duct.
D. Through the journey of urine described in part C, describe the process of conserving
water by the two solute gradients.
3) Chapter 45 overview, 45.1, 45.2, 45.3
A. What is the relationship between hormones and target cells?
B. Briefly explain the function of the endocrine system, and how it is connected to the
nervous system. Sketch the hypothalamus and pituitary glands to show this.
endocrine glands neurosecretory cells Homeostasis
C. How do steroid hormones induce or suppress the expression of specific genes? How
do steroids and peptide hormones differ in structure and function?
D. How do local regulators affect neighboring target cells? How are the local regulators
different from hormones? nitric oxide
growth factors
EGF
IGF
TGF
prostaglandins
E. Explain the relationship between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, and the
hormones of the anterior and posterior pituitary. oxytocin ADH GH IGFs
Prolactin FSH LH
4) 45.4, 46,4 (953-959, 973-978)
A. Read through each endocrine land from pp 953-959. Make a chart listing the
following endocrine glands and list the major hormones secreted by each. Leave
space to add information to each from class. Thyroid parathyroid adrenal medulla
adrenal cortex gonads pineal
B. Using Fig. 46.14, explain the connection between GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing
hormone), LH (Luteinizing hormone),FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone), negative
feedback, and spermatogenesis.
C. Explain how hormones regulate the menstrual cycle including the phases in which
the hormonal activity occurs. Menstrual flow phase proliferative phase secretory
phase GnRH LH FSH hypothalamus anterior pituitary ovaries ovarian hormones
(estrogen and progesterone)
11
NERVOUS, SENSORY, AND MOTOR SYSTEMS
1) Chapter 48 overview, 48.1, 48.5 (1011-1015, 1026-1028)
A. Explore the evolutionary relationships of invertebrates and their nervous systems.
nerve net cephalization nerve cord ganglia brain nerve ring ventral
B. Discuss the three functions of the nervous system: sensory input, integration, motor
output, central nervous system effector cells
nerves peripheral nervous
system
C. Diagram a neuron, and label its parts. Identify the functions of these parts and
supporting cells. cell body dendrite axon glia myelin sheath astrocytes Schwann
cell oligodendrocytes synaptic terminals synapse
D. Use a diagram of a reflex arc to discuss the locations and functions of the three main
categories of neurons: sensory neuron interneuron motor neuron
E. What are some physiological traits of the CNS intended to protect the brain?
cerebrospinal fluid ventricles white matter meninges
F. Diagram, label and explain the vertebrate PNS. cranial nerves spinal nerves sensory
division motor division somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system
parasympathetic system sympathetic division
2) 48.2, 48.3, 48.4 (1015-1025)
A. Explain how the sodium-potassium pump creates and maintains the resting
membrane potential of a neuron.
B. Use diffusion and membrane proteins to explain how stimulation creates an action
potential in a neuron. voltage-gated ion channels hyperpolarization
depolarization
graded potential threshold potential refractory period
C. How does the action potential propagate along a neuron?
D. What regulates the rate of transmission of an action potential along an axon?
node of Ranvier
saltatory conduction
E. Explain the how communication happens between neurons and the general structure
and category of neurotransmitters.
F. Discuss the voltage changes caused by the binding of neurotransmitter to the
receptor: How can one neurotransmitter produce different effects on different cells
excitatory postsynaptic potential inhibitory postsynaptic potential spatial temporal axon
hillock. acetylcholine adenylyl cyclase K+ G protein
3) 48.5, 48.6 (1028-1037)
A. Diagram and explain the embryonic origins of each main region of the brain. neural
tube fore/mid/hind brain telen/dien/mesen/meten/myelencephalon cerebrum
pons medulla
B. Explain how different parts of the brain are involved in the action of kicking a soccer
ball. brainstem colliculi cerebellum thalamus basal nuclei
C. Diagram the cerebrum and describe the function of each region. parietal temporal
occipital corpus callosum basal nuclei cortex somatosensory
D. Critique the evidence and theories about the causes of arousal, sleep, lateralization,
emotions, memory, and learning. EEG RAS aphasia amygdala hippocampus LTD/LTP
4) Chapter 49 overview, 49.1, 49.2, 49.3 (1045-1057)
A. Distinguish between sensations and perceptions. Describe the process
whereby sensations are transcribed into perceptions. Sensory transduction, receptor
potential, amplification, transmission, integration.
B. Why isn’t your brain overloaded with unnecessary perceptions?
AP BIOLOGY
C.Describe the functions of the five different receptor types? Mechanoreceptors, muscle
spindle, hair cell, nociceptors, thermoreceptors, chemoreceptors, gustatory/olfactory,
electromagnetic receptors, photoreceptors.
D. The ear is a complicated organ. Which parts of it amplify sound? Which parts
transmit it? Which parts translate it into neural signals? Outer ear, middle ear, inner
ear, pinna, auditory canal, stapes/incus/malleus, tympanic membrane, cochlea,
organ of Corti, tectorial membrane, hair cells.
E. Why is it necessary for your ear to have a round window?
F. How does the cochlea translate pitch and volume?
G. How do the semicircular canals detect movement and acceleration?
H. How does the lateral line system and neuromasts work to detect water movement?
I. Describe the basic function of sensory organs in invertebrates. statoliths
statocysts
J. Define gustation and olfaction and how they are interrelated.
K. Discuss how the sense of taste and smell and the process of a stimulation leads to
taste/smell perception in the brain. taste buds

5) 49.4 (1057-1062)
A. Discuss the evolutionary advatanges of the different photoreceptors in invertebrates.
Eye cup compound eyes ommatidia single lens eyes
B. Describe the function and locate each part of the vertebrate eye (Study fig 49.6)
sclera choroids conjuctiva cornea pupil retina
C. How do the lens and ciliary body change when focusing on a close object? aqueous
humor vitreous humor accommodation
D.
Compare the functions rod cells and cone cells. fovea
E. How do retinas tranduce stimuli? retinal opsin rhodopsin
F. What happens to rhodopsin when it absorb light or when it is dark? (Study fig 49.9)
G. How does the eye process colors? photopsins
H. Describe how visual signals are sent to the brain. bipolar cells Ganglion horizontal
cells amacrine cells lateral inhibition optic chiasm lateral geniculate nuclei primary
visual cortex
6) 49.5,49.6 (1063-1072)
A. What are the main functions of a skeleton and describe the three different types of
skeletons Give at least one example of each and explain how each skeleton
functions. Peristalsis cuticle chitin axial and appendicular skeleton hydrostatic
exoskeleton endoskeleton
B. Diagram and label the basic structure of a skeleton muscle. Include:
I band H zone A band Z lines Thick filaments Thin filaments myofilaments
sarcomere myofibrils
C. How does the sliding-filament model explain muscle contraction?
Actin myosin Cross-bridge phospagens Creatine phosphate
D. Discuss how the calcium ions and regulatory proteins control muscle contraction.
Tropomyosin troponin complex Sarcoplasmic Reticulum T(traverse) tubules
E. How do motor neurons and muscle cells communicate. Neuromuscular axon
terminals acetylvcholine
F. Discuss the process of Temporal summation. Tetanus Motor unit recruitment
G. Explain the adaptive advantages of slow and fast muscle fibers. How does exercise
result in good muscle tone? muscle fatigue
oxygen debt anaerobic and aerobic respiration
H. Distinguish between the three types of muscle tissue. Where can the three different
types of muscles be found? Skeletal smooth cardiac muscle fibers fascicles
striations voluntary muscle strained muscle tendons
12
ECOLOGY
1) Chapter 50 (1082-1083, 1085 Biotic factors… - 1104)
A. Discuss the relationships among the following:
individual population community
ecosystem biome
B. Define a biotic factors and describe several ways biotic factors limit an organism’s
distribution
C. Define an abiotic factor and describe how each of the following abiotic factors limit an
organism’s distribution: temperature water sunlight wind rock and soil
macroclimate
microclimate
long term climate changes
D. Discuss the structure of aquatic biomes. photic zone aphotic zone thermocline
benthic zone detritus
E. Describe the major freshwater aquatic ecosystems and biomes. littoral limnetic
profundal oligotrophic eutrophic mesotrophic wetland estuary
F. Diagram and explain the zones in marine communities. intertidal neritic oceanic
pelagic benthic abyssal
G. Describe the climate zones of the major terrestrial biomes. What are the defining
abiotic factors and where are they to be found on the globe?
tropical rain forest canopy savanna desert chaparral
temperate grassland
temperate forest
taiga
tundra permafrost
H. List the primary plant and animal communities to be found in each of these biomes.
2) Chapter 52 overview, 52.1, 52.3, 52.4, 52.5 (1139-1141, 1143-1152)
A. Define demography. What factors add to populations and what factors deplete
them? births deaths immigration emigration
B. How do age structure(see fig. 52.53, p 1103), fecundity, mortality, generation time
and sex ratio relate to life tables and survivorship curves?
cohort
C. Describe the variability in reproductive patterns using three examples.
D. Discuss the growth of populations growing at their intrinsic rate of increase.
Describe the exponential growth pattern mathematically and graphically.
E. Discuss the growth of a population that stabilizes at carrying capacity.
Describe the logistic growth pattern mathematically and graphically.
F. Define two life history “strategies” related to the above growth patterns: K-selected
(equilibrial)
r-selected (opportunistic)
G. What factors determine whether a population is r-selected or K-selected? What are
the limitations of these concepts?
H. Define density-dependent factors and relate them to intraspecific competition and K
selection. Give examples of density dependent factors.
I. Discuss how density-independent factors limit population size. Relate these factors to
r-selected populations. Give examples of these factors.
J. How do both density dependent and independent factors combine to affect most
populations?
K. Discuss the regular “boom and bust” cycles that exist in many populations.
D. Compare energy and biomass from one trophic level to the next in a typical pyramid.
How is it possible for consumers to outweigh producers in some ecosystems? standing
crop biomass turnover time pyramid of numbers
E. Use diagrams with captions to discuss the following biogeochemical cycles and their
parts: hydrologic(water) cycle: evaporation condensation transpiration precipitation
carbon cycle: photosynthesis respiration combustion decomposition nitrogen cycle:
fixation nitrification ammonification denitrification
phosphorous cycles: sedimentation weathering decomposition.
5) Chapter 53 overview, 53.1, 53.2, 53.3 (1159-1170, 1172-1175)
A. Define community and niche. Explain the significance of interspecific interactions
and the the Competitive Exclusion Principle.
B. Define each of the following interactions as +/+, +/-, -/- or +/o. Give an example of
each.
predation (predator/prey) parasitism (parasite/host) parasitoidism
herbivory endoparasite ectoparasite
interspecific competition commensalism
mutualism
C. Discuss the adaptations animals have evolved to defend themselves against
predators. cryptic coloration aposematic coloration Batesian mimicry Mullerian
mimicry
D. Define symbiosis. Which of the relationships above are symbiotic?
host symbiont
E. How do predators help maintain the stability of a community?
F. What effects do mutualism and parasitism have on communities? How have
humans become involved?
G. Discuss the impact of the following type of species: dominant keystone foundation
H. Are communities stable? What contributes to the stability of a community? Give
some examples of how humans affect stability. disturbances
I. Compare primary and secondary succession.
J. Why might r-selected organisms be good colonizers early in a succession?
tolerance
K. How might earlier organisms in a succession change the environment so that the
next community in the succession can replace them? inhibition facilitation
4) Chapter 54 overview, 54.1, 54.2, 54.3, 54.4 (1184-1199)
 Read "Dissolved Oxygen ....." pp 66 - 70, Lab Guide
DO LabBench 12, on campbellbiology.com Print quiz, bring for stamp.
A. Discuss the trophic structure of an ecosystem. Use examples from terrestrial and
aquatic ecosystems. producers primary, secondary and tertiary consumers
detritivores (scavengers and decomposers)
B. Distinguish between a food chain and a food web.
C. How can energy be said to “flow” through an ecosystem? Discuss energy flow in
terms of gross and net primary productivity. How are photosynthesis and respiration
involved in this energy flow?
AP BIOLOGY
13