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Unit 3
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Chapter 1
Cell
The smallest structural and functional unit of which all living
things are built.
Cell membrane
phospholipid double layer that encloses the contents of a cell and
controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell.
Organelle
subcellular structure found in eukaryote cells which are involved
in specific functions of the cell.
Cytosplasm
all the contents of the cell except the nucleus.
Cytosol
fluid component of cytoplasm in which organelles are located.
Nucleus
in a eukaryotic cell, a large organelle containing chromosomes
(which control cellular activities) surrounded by a double layer
nuclear membrane with numerous nuclear pores.
Mitochondrion/
organelle in which aerobic cellular respiration occurs; composed
of many layers of folded membrane.
mitochondria
Ribosome
tiny organelles that are often attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum; composed of protein ad RNA; the site of protein
synthesis.
Golgi apparatus
an organelle composed of a stack of smooth membranous
cisternae (flattened sac-like structures) in which proteins and
polysaccharides are assembled ad packaged via vesicles for
export from the cell
Cell wall
wall outside the cell membrane in plant cells (cellulose), some
protists, prokaryotes (murein) and fungi (chitin)
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Vacuole
membrane-bound liquid filled space within cells. Vacuoles in
plant cells are usually large and are involved in storage and
turgidity. In other cells, vacuoles may be involved in intracellular
digestion and water balance
Chloroplast
green organelle containing chlorophyll, present in some plant
cells, in which photosynthesis takes place. Composed of many
folded layers of membrane.
Endoplasmic
reticulum
layers of intracellular membranes; links between membranebound organelles and the plasma membrane; may be a rough
endoplasmic reticulum; or a smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Lysosome
membrane bound vesicle found in most animal cells, in which
powerful enzymes break down debris and foreign micro
organisms.
Vesicle
membrane bod organelle often involved with transport within
the cell.
Active transport
movement of substances across membranes that require
expenditure of energy; ocurrs through selective protein channels.
Centriole
small cylindrical structure composed of microtubules; occurs in
pairs and involved in separation of chromosomes in animal cells
and many organelles
Prokaryote
an organism with a simple cellular structure, lacking most
organelles.
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Eukaryote
organism composed of more than one cells that contain distinct
membrane bound nuclei
Cellulose
a complex carbohydrate molecule that is very strong; forms plant
cell walls
Chitin
polysaccharide that forms part of the exoskeleton of insects and
other invertebrates; also found in the cell walls and In the fungi.
Organic compound
any of the complex molecules containing carbon that occur in
living organisms; for example, proteins, carbohydrates and lipids.
Inorganic
compound
all compounds other than organic
Carbohydrate
are organic compounds such as sugars, starch and cellulose, that
are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Protein
functional molecule that is composed of one or more
polypeptides, which are linear sequences of amino acids.
Lipid
fatty organic compound, including fats or oils which is composed
of mainly carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Lipids have
proportionally less oxygen than carbohydrates, and may contain
other elements
Nucleic acid
the genetic material of all organisms; molecule in which
information is stored that determines features of the organism
and controls cellular activities.
Phospholipid
fat like substance, usually based on glycerol; phospholipids are
essential components of cell membranes; are involved in the
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uptake of fats and fatty acids from the products of digestion.
Fluid mosaic
model
in relation to all cell membranes-fluid because of lateral
movement of lipid molecules and mosaic because of the irregular
location of proteins in the body.
Partially
permeable
a membrane that allows the molecules of a solvent to pass freely
across, but prevents the passage of sat least some solute
molecules.
Diffusion
passive movement of solute from a region of high to low
concentration.
Osmosis
passive diffusion of free moving water molecules across a
differentially permeable membrane from a dilute solution to a
concentrated solution (of water molecules).
Facilitated
diffusion
passive diffusion through selective protein channels in
membranes
Chapter 2
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Chapter 3
Energy:
the capacity to do work. It exists in many forms – light, heat,
sound, mechanical, electrical and chemical energy.
ATP:
(adenosine triphosphate) Molecules of ATP provide energy for
immediate use by the cell; produced during glycolysis and
cellular respiration.
Aerobic
respiration:
Cellular respiration in which oxygen is consumed by oxidation
(e.g. of glucose) and carbon dioxide is produced. In most
organisms this is the usual way in which cells obtain most of
their energy.
Autotroph:
Organism that makes its own organic molecules, including
glucose, from inorganic molecules; includes photosynthetic and
chemosynthetic organisms.
Krebs cycle:
Process that results in the breakdown of carbohydrates to carbon
dioxide; is linked to electron transport in the extraction of energy
in the form of ATP from carbohydrates.
Heterotroph:
Organism that must obtain organic compounds by eating other
organisms or their products.
Chlorophyll:
Light-absorbing green pigment involved in photosynthesis.
Fermentation:
Stage in the breakdown of glucose that follows glycolysis when
there is no oxygen present. Produces either lactic acid (in most
animals) or alcohol (in most plants and micro-organisms).
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Calvin Cycle:
Where carbon dioxide combines with a 5-carbon compound,
producing two molecules of a 3-carbon compound
(Phosphoglyceric acid) as the first product.
Exergonic
reaction:
Chemical reaction that involves a net release of energy.
ADP:
(adenosine diphosphate) Produced after the release of energy
from ATP; can be recharged to form ATP and used again.
Cellular
Respiration:
General reference to energy releasing processes in cells. More
specifically refers to the aerobic stage in the complete
breakdown of glucose to produce ATP, which occurs in the
mitochondria and produces 34-36 molecules of ATP per
molecule of glucose.
Glycogen:
Carbohydrates stored in animals.
Electron
Transport:
System of electron carriers embedded in the inner membranes of
the mitochondria whose function require oxygen and produces
most of the energy released from glucose (in the form of ATP)
and water.
Lactic acid:
Product of the breakdown of pyruvate in the absence of oxygen;
by-product of anaerobic respiration in animals.
Chemoautotroph:
Producer organism (autotroph) that gains its energy by carrying
out energy-releasing reactions between inorganic molecules.
Chloroplast:
Green organelle containing chlorophyll, present in some plant
cells, in which photosynthesis takes place. Composed of many
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folded layers of membrane.
Light-independent
reaction:
Stage of photosynthesis that does not require light, where
reactions take place in the fluid matrix of the chloroplast
(stroma). ATP made during the light-dependent reaction
provides the energy needed to combine carbon dioxide with
hydrogen ions to form glucose.
Endergonic
reaction:
Reaction that requires and input of energy in order to occur.
Anaerobic
reaction:
The breakdown of substances, and consequent release of energy,
without the use of oxygen, as with glycolysis followed by
fermentation to alcohol or lactic acid. In most organisms,
anaerobic respiration takes place only when there is not enough
oxygen to sustain aerobic respiration.
Mitochondrion:
Organelle in which aerobic cellular respiration occurs; composed
of many layers of folded membrane.
Glycolysis:
First stage in the breakdown of glucose. Occurs in the cytoplasm,
is anaerobic and produces two molecules of ATP for each glucose
molecule.
Pyruvate:
Three-carbon molecule that is a product of glycolysis; is a
substrate for the Kreb’s cycle.
Photosynthesis:
Cellular process in which light energy is trapped by chlorophyll
and used to combine carbon dioxide and water to make glucose.
The light stage involves splitting water and producing ATP; the
dark stage involves the combination of hydrogen and carbon
dioxide to make glucose using the ATP produced in the light
stage.
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Starch:
Form of carbohydrate storage in plants.
Light-dependent
reaction:
Stage in photosynthesis which takes place in the inner
membranes of the chloroplast (grana). The reaction requires
light; the chloroplast traps light energy and uses it to produce
ATP and to split water into hydrogen ions and oxygen gas.
Light
compensation
point:
The light intensity at which the rate of carbon dioxide produced
by cellular respiration equals the rate that carbon dioxide is used
in photosynthesis ion plants.
Chapter 4
Genome
a full set of chromosomes; all the inheritable traits of an
organism.
DNA (Deoxynucleic A nucleic acid made up of a sequence of deoxyribose sugars and
bases linked by phosphate bonds. It is the carrier of all genetic
acid)
information in cellular organisms: Found in chromosomes, and
small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Proteomics
the branch of genetics that studies the full set of proteins
encoded by a genome.
Genetic code
The nucleotide triplets of DNA and RNA molecules that carry
genetic information in living cells.
Amino acid
Any of a class of organic compounds that contains at least one
amino group, –NH 2 , and one carboxyl group, –COOH: the alphaamino acids, RCH(NH 2 )COOH, are the building blocks from
which proteins are constructed.
Codon
a triplet of adjacent nucleotides in the messenger RNA chain that
codes for a specific amino acid in the synthesis of a protein
molecule.
Transcription
Process by which base sequence in DNA is used to produce a
base sequence in RNA.
Nucleotide
any of a group of molecules that, when linked together, form the
building blocks of DNA or RNA: composed of a phosphate group,
the bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine, and a pentose
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sugar, in RNA the thymine base being replaced by uracil.
Polypeptide
a chain of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds
Translation
process in which the base sequence of an rRNA molecule is used
to produce the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide.
RNA
ribonucleic acid: any of a class of single-stranded molecules
transcribed from DNA in the cell nucleus or in the mitochondrion
or chloroplast, containing along the strand a linear sequence of
nucleotide bases that is complementary to the DNA strand from
which it is transcribed.
Proteome
the entire complement of proteins found in an organism over its
entire life cycle, or in a particular cell type at a particular time
under defined environmental conditions.
Antiparallel
In DNA, meaning that one strand runs 5’ to 3’ and the other runs
3’ to 5’.
Protein
Functional molecule that is composed of one or more
polypeptides, which are linear sequences of amino acids.
Chapter 5
Intracellular
Environment:
Occurring or being (situated) inside a cell
Internal
Environment:
Or extracellular fluid, is the internal fluid that surrounds cells in
multicellular organisms.
External
Environment:
The medium surrounding an organism
Homeostasis:
Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment in the
face of changes in external or internal conditions.
Diabetes:
Disease resulting from insufficient production of insulin by the
pancreas or the inability of cells to respond to insulin
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Osmoregulator:
An organism that uses energy to maintain relatively constant
levels of ions and solutes in it’s body fluids.
Stimulus:
An environmental factor that an organism can detect or respond
to.
Receptor:
Specialised structure that can detect a specific stimulus and
initiate a response.
Effector:
A muscle or gland which responds to a stimulus.
Response:
A physiological or behavioural change in an organism as a result
of receiving a stimulus.
Threshold:
a thresh hold is reached when the intensity of a stimulus is
sufficient to stimulate a receptor
Negative Feedback
System:
Stimulus response mechanisms that act to restore to the original
state
Guard Cells:
In plants, pairs of highly specialised epidermal cells which form
stomata and regulate the degree of opening of the stomata pore
Turgor:
a state of high internal fluid pressure that is the result of the
osmotic intake of water into plant cells whose volume is limited
by the presence of a rigid cell wall.
Stomata:
Tiny epidermal pore through which gas exchange occurs in
plants; each stoma is bound by two guard cells.
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Disturbance
Detector:
receptor that detects a change in the internal or external
environment that is likely to produce a change in a particular
factor of the internal environment that is being regulated
Misalignment
Detector:
A receptor that detects change in a factor of the internal
environment that is being regulated.
Signalling
Molecule:
Molecule, such as a neurotransmitter or hormone, that is
involved in chemical communication between cells.
Hormone:
Substance, produced by particular groups of cells within an
organism that regulate the growth of activity of those cells
capable of responding to target cells.
Insulin:
Secreted in response to high glucose levels, and acts by
supressing the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver,
stimulating the storage of glucose in the liver and muscles, and
stimulating the formation of fat using glucose.
Glucagon:
In vertebrates, a hormone produced in the pancreas that causes
glycogen to be broken down in the liver, releasing glucose into
the blood, thus opposing the effect of insulin.
Chapter 6
Homeostasis
maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment in the
face of changes in external or internal conditions.
Response
a physiological or behavioural change in an organism as a result
of receiving a stimulus.
Neurotransmitter
A chemical that is released from a nerve cell which thereby
transmits an impulse from a nerve cell to another nerve, muscle,
organ, or other tissue. A neurotransmitter is a messenger of
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neurologic information from one cell to another.
Pituitary Gland
The main endocrine gland. It is a small structure in the head. It is
called the master gland because it produces hormones that
control other glands and many body functions including growth.
The pituitary consists of the anterior and posterior pituitary.
Pheremone
A chemical substance produced and released into the
environment by an animal, especially a mammal or an insect,
affecting the behaviour or physiology of others of its species.
Photoreceptor:
A nerve ending, cell, or group of cells specialized to sense or
receive light.
Synapse
The junction across which a nerve impulse passes from an axon
terminal to a neuron, a muscle cell, or a gland cell.
Action Potential
A momentary change in electrical potential on the surface of a
cell, especially of a nerve or muscle cell, that occurs when it is
stimulated,resulting in the transmission of an electrical impulse.
Misalignment
Detector
A receptor that detects change in a factor of the internal
environment that is being regulated.
Plant Growth
Regulator
Any of the hormones produced naturally in plants and active in
controlling growth and other functions. There are three primary
classes: auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins.
Gibberellins
Any of several plant hormones, such as gibberellic acid, used to
promote stem elongation.
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Ethylene
A gaseous plant hormone that stimulates fruit ripening and the
dropping of leaves.
Stimulus
An environmental factor that an organism can detect and
respond to.
Signalling
Molecule
Molecule, such as a neurotransmitter or hormone, that is in
involved in chemical communication between cells.
Target Cell
Cell that has the appropriate receptor for and can be reached by
a specific molecule.
Endocrine Gland
In animals, a gland that typically releases its secretion (hormone)
directly into the circulatory system, which carries the hormone
throughout the body.
Chemoreceptor
Sensory receptor that detects and responds to specific chemical
substances.
Thermoreceptor
Sensory receptor that detects and responds to heat or cold.
Neuron
A nerve cell, including its various processes and attachments,
forming the fundamental unit of the nervous system in animals.
Myelin
An insulating sheath composed of many layers of cell membrane,
which envelops some nerve axons along with their length.
Phototropism
A response of an organism to light, such as a change in the
direction of growth in a plant.
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Photoperiodism
The reaction of an organism to the photoperiod. (Photoperiod:
The length of time to which an organism is exposed to light)
Cytokinins
A group of plant hormones that, in the presence of auxin,
stimulate the division of plant cells.
Thigmotropism
Change in the direction of plant growth in response to contact
with a surface, as in the twining of a tendril around a support.
Receptor
Specialised structure that can detect a specific stimulus and
initiate a response.
Hormone
Substance, produced by particular groups of cells within an
organism, that regulates the growth or activity of those cells
capable of responding (target cells).
Hypothalamus
In vertebrates, the base and part of the sides of the brain
immediately below the thalamus. In mammals, directly or
indirectly controls aspects of the internal environment,
particularly through the secretion of various hormones, such as
the anterior pituitary hormones (APH).
Endocrine System
System of internal control in animals that involves the release of
specific chemicals, hormones, into the blood.
Mechanoreceptor
Sensory receptor that detects and responds to a change in its
shape.
Signal
Transduction
Conversion of incoming signals by receptors into useful
information leading to an appropriate and coordinated response.
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Axon
The part of a nerve cell that conducts an action potential away
from the cell body towards the next nerve cell.
Disturbance
receptor
Receptor that detects a change in the internal or external
environment that is likely to produce a change in a particular
factor of the internal environment that is being regulated.
Geotropism
(gravitropism)
The orientation of plant parts growth in response to gravity.
Auxin
Plant hormone that promotes the growth of new shoots, positive
phototropism, negative geotropism and apical dominance.
Abscisic Acid:
A growth-inhibiting plant hormone associated with leaf and fruit
fall, as well as bud and seed dormancy. It may also be involved in
stomatal movements.
Chapter 7
Disease
Any condition that impairs the normal functioning of an
organism.
Parasite
An organism that lives in our or on the body of another organism
(the host) and obtains its nutrients from the host, without the
host receiving any benefit.
Vector
Object or organism that transfers a parasite from on host to
another.
Toxin
Any poisonous substance produced by an organism (living or
dead) that is poisonous to another organism.
Virus
A microscopic non-cellular particle consisting of a DNA or RNA
core with a protein coat, and perhaps a membrane envelope; able
to penetrate cells, destroy them or interfere with their function,
and multiply rapidly.
Retrovirus
RNA virus in which viral RNA is first used to make DNA in a
process of reverse transcription.
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Infectious disease
A disease caused by an agent that can be passed from one
organism to another.
Oomycetes
nonphotosynthetic fungi that resemble algae and that reproduce
by forming oospores; sometimes classified as protoctists.
Primary host
The animal or plant on which or in which another organism lives.
Bacteria
A member of a large group of unicellular microorganisms lacking
organelles and an organized nucleus, including some that can
cause disease.Bacteria
Pathogenesis
The manner of development of a disease.
Fungi
Heterotrophic organisms with eukaryotic cells. The cells have
cell walls but never contain chlorophyll, e.g. mushrooms, mould,
yeast. They help bring about the decay of organic matter.
Capsid
The protein coat or shell of a virus particle, surrounding the
nucleic acid or nucleoprotein core.
Viroid
An infectious agent that is virus-like but lacks a protein coat.
Pathogen
A bacterium, virus, or other microorganism that can cause
disease.
Intermediate host
An organism that supports the immature or nonreproductive
forms of a parasite.
Carrier
(1) An organism infected by a pathogen and capable of
transmitting the pathogen, usually without itself being affected
by the pathogen. (2) An organism with an allele for a disease
which is masked by a normal dominant phenotype. Such an
organism might not have the disease expressed, but might
transmit the condition to its offspring where the disease might be
expressed.
Protozoan
Eukaryotic organism belonging to a group characterized for
being single-celled, mostly motile and heterotrophic.
Namatodes
Small, unsegmented worm-like animals (phylum nematode)
including roundworms, threadworms and eelworms.
Bacteriophage
A virus that infects bacteria.
Prion
A virus-like infectious agent consisting only of proteins, without
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any genetic material.
Chapter 8
Agglutination
Clumping of cells or particles brought about by antibodies
binding to antigens on the surfaces of the cells or particles
Antibody
Protein produced by animals in response to antigen and which
reacts specifically with the antigen that induced its formation
Antigen
Compounds, usually proteins, that can trigger the immune
system to respond in various ways, including antibody
production
B-Cell (Blymphocyte)
Lymphocyte that gives rise to plasma cells that produce
antibodies against foreign material
B-memory cell
Particular kind of B cell that is able to respond quickly to a
specific antigen that has been previously encountered.
Bone marrow
Fatty substance in the internal cavity of bones, the site of blood
cell formation
Cellular immune
response
Response to infection involving action of phagocytes and T cells
Complement
system
Group of blood proteins that play various roles in the body’s
second line of defence against infection
Cytotoxic T cell
(Tc)
Kind of T cell that specifically recognises and kills infected body
cells
T-helper cell (Th)
class of T cell whose actions include stimulating B cells to
produce specific antibodies
Histamine
Chemical released by cells at a site of injury, from mast cells
Humoral immunity immunity resulting from the presence of antibodies in body
fluids
Immune system
Group of lymphoid tissues and organs and lymphatic vessels that
assist the body to resist infection and disease through specialised
cells such as macrophages, neutrophils, B cells and T cells
Immunoglobulin
general term for all antibody molecules, including those found in
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body fluids and those on the surface of B cells
Inflammation
Reaction to an infection, typically associated with reddening of
the skin owing to an increased blood supply to that region
Interferon
Group of proteins secreted by some cells in response to a virus
infection that assist uninfected cells some parasites such as
tapeworms
Lymph
Tissue fluid that circulates in the lymphatic vessels
Lymphocyte
Class of white blood cells found in all tissues including blood,
lymph nodes and spleen, and which play a role in specific
immunity
Macrophage
Cell derived from a monocyte that may be found in various
tissues throughout the body and is able to engulf foreign material
Major
Cluster of genes that encodes information for the production of
Histocompatability marker proteins on the surface of all cells
complec (MHC)
Mast cell
non-mobile cell containing histamine, which is involved in
allergic responses
Monocyte
The largest type of white blood cells; one kind of phagocyte
Natural killer (NK)
cell
Type of lymphocytes that kill virus-infected cells before the virus
has replicated, and tumour cells without involving recognition of
specific markers
Neutrophil
Most common type of blood cell; one kind of phagocyte
Non-specific
immunity
Also called non-adaptive; group of defences including physical
barriers, action of different kinds of blood cells, chemical
reactions, and the inflammation reaction that the body makes to
all infections
Phagocyte
Type of white blood cell, includes neutrophils and monocytes,
that can engulf and destroy foreign material, such as microorganisms that enter the body
Plasma cell
Cell produced by reproduction of a B cell and which produces the
same kind of antibody as its parent B cell
Primary antibody
Productions of antibodies induced in an individual by the first
injection of antigen during vaccination
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response
Pus
Secondary
antibody response
Specific immunity
Tcell
Material formed at the sight of inflammation that includes dead
white blood cells that have engulfed infecting bacteria
Production of antibodies induced in an individual by a booster
(second) injection of antigen
Also called adaptive immunity; the reaction of each lymphocyte
to a specific antigen resulting in the production of antibodies that
act to neutralise the antigen that provoked their production;
includes the production of memory cells
Type lymphocyte that matures in the thymus; plays a role in
specific immunity
Chapter 9
Immunity
Acquired ability to defend against infection by a
disease-causing organism. Natural immunity is the result of
a previous encounter with the organism; artifi cial immunity
results from injection of a vaccine. Both these are long-lasting.
Brief passive immunity can be given by injecting antibodies
made in another organism.
Vaccination
Introduction of an inactivated form of a bacterium
to produce a long-lasting immunity to the pathogenic
form of the bacterium; induction of artifi cial immunity.
Toxoid
Inactivated form of a toxin, used to produce an immune
response.
‘Non-self’
Is where a foreign antigen is recognised as being foreign as it
does not display the ‘self’ MHC marker on its cell surface.
Autoimmune
disease
Disease resulting from the persistent
presence of antibodies directed against particular parts of
the body; occurs as a result of an impaired ability of the immune
system to recognise ‘self’.
Antibody
Specifi c protein (immunoglobulin) produced by
lymphocytes in response to a particular antigen, with which
it binds.
Antigen
Substance capable of binding with an antibody produced
by the immune system.
Allergy
A vigorous response of the immune system to an
antigen, resulting in tissue damage or disease symptoms.
Allergen
An antigen that produces an allergic response.
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Immunoglobulin
Antibody molecule produced by B cells in
response to an interaction with a specifi c antigen. Different
B cells respond to different antigens and produce only one
form of immunoglobulin.
Mast cell
A cell in the connective tissue of vertebrates that
secretes the hormones histamine and heparin.
Histamine
In humans, a naturally occurring substance
formed by the breakdown of histidine, an amino acid. Its
normal function is to stimulate the production of gastric
juices, and to dilate the blood vessels as part of the management
of the internal environment. An excessive production
of histamine may be triggered by contact with certain allergens
such as pollens, and results in over-dilation of blood
vessels and infl ammation of tissues.
Antihistamine
A substance that counters the effects of histamine,
a naturally occurring substance in the human body
that causes symptoms in people who are hypersensitive to
allergens. Antihistamines relieve the symptoms of allergic
reactions.
Self
Is when our own body cells display ‘self’ antigens to avoid the
immune system acting upon them
Naturally-acquired This results from surviving an infection by bacteria or viruses.
active immunity
Artificiallyacquired active
immunity
This arises as a result of the injection of a specific vaccine.
Naturally passive
immunity
This occurs during pregnancy and breast feeding where
antibodies are passed onto the baby.
Artificially passive
immunity
This involves the administration of a serum containing
antibodies (antibody serum) made in another organism.
Acquired immune
deficiency
syndrome (AIDS)
Disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that
results in significant damage to the immune system making the
infected person particularly susceptible to infectious disease
Acquired
immunity
Characteristics by the presence in an individual of antibodies to a
particular infective agent; in active acquired immunity, an
individual produces his/her own antibodies as a result of
exposure to an antigen, in passive acquired immunity an
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individual receives antibodies from an outside source
Allergic response
Rapid immune response to normal harmless antigens such as
dust or pollen; involves action of mast cells
Immune deficiency Malfunction or deficiency in one or more components of the
immune system; may be inherited or acquired
Passice immunity
Immunity provided when an individual receives antibodies made
by another organism; antibodies may be received through
injection or naturally as when a baby receives them from the
mother across the placenta or in breast milk
Rational drug
design
Construction of the drug to fit the active site of a molecule so that
the natural action of the molecule cannot occur