Download Ecology classification week 2

Life Support System and
Main Concepts
‫مفهوم پایداری و اجزای اساسی آن‬
‫• تعریف پایداری‪ :‬ظرفیت و توان سیستم طبیعی کره زمین‪،‬‬
‫سیستم فرهنگی انسان و سیستم اقتصادی برای بقا و تطبیق‬
‫با تغییرات زیست محیطی بصورت دائمی است‪.‬‬
‫• اجزای اساسی پایداری‪:‬‬
‫– الف‪ :‬سرمایه طبیعی شامل منابع طبیعی و خدمات طبیعت‬
‫– ب‪ :‬سرمایه خورشیدی‬
‫– توان بازتولید اکولوژیکی‬
‫– حمایت از راه حلهای زیست محیطی‬
‫سرمایه طبیعی یا ‪Natural Capital‬‬
‫• تعریف‪ :‬سرمایه طبیعی حیات را ممکن و حمایت میکند و اقتصاد را پشتیبانی‬
‫مینماید و شامل منابع طبیعی و خدمات طبیعت میگردد‪.‬‬
‫• منابع طبیعی یا ‪ :Natural Resources‬شامل مواد و انرژی در طبیعت استکه‬
‫برای زندگی الزم و حیاتی است‪ .‬این منابع شامل منابع تجدید پذیر مانند هوا‪،‬‬
‫آب‪ ،‬خاک و گیاهان و غیره و تجدید ناپذیر مانند نفت‪ ،‬زغال سنگ‪ ،‬فلزات و‬
‫غیر فلزات میگردند‪.‬‬
‫• خدمات طبیعت یا ‪ :Natural Services‬کارویژه های طبیعت از جمله شامل‬
‫خالص سازی آب و هوا برای حمایت از زنجیره حیات و اقتصاد‪ ،‬خدمات‬
‫اکوسیستمی بدون هزینه که منشا اصلی ‪ NS‬اند‪ ،‬چرخه تغذیه ‪Nutrient‬‬
‫‪ Cycling‬جهت چرخش مواد شمیمایی مورد نیاز انسان از طبیعت به ارگانیسم‬
‫و سپس بازگشت به طبیعت میباشد‪.‬‬
‫سرمایه خورشیدی و اصول دیگر‬
‫• سرمایه خورشیدی موجب حمایت از سرمایه طبیعی از طریق‬
‫عملیات فتوسنتز در گیاهان و تهیه غذا برای آنان و سایر گونه ها و‬
‫رها سازی اکسیژن و جذب اکسید کربن میگردد‪ .‬همچنین موجب‬
‫جابجایی در جریانات هوایی و آبی و خاکی زمین میگردد‪.‬‬
‫• توان باز تولید اکولوژیکی یا ‪ Carrying Capacity‬بمعنی عدم‬
‫عبور از توان طبیعت خصوصا منابع تجدید پذیر در تولید مجدد‬
‫است‪.‬‬
‫• حمایت سیاسی و اقتصادی از راه حلهای زیست محیطی برای‬
‫جلوگیری از تخریب محیط زیست و ایجاد باالنس بین نیازهای‬
‫زیست محیطی و مقتضیات سیاسی و اقتصادی است‪.‬‬
Energy cycle and photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide + water + solar energy = glucose (carbohydrate) + oxygen
6CO2 + 6 H2O + solar energy = C6H12O6 + 6 O2
AND
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 = 6CO2 + 6 H2O + energy
‫چهار اصل علمی پایداری‬
‫• دانشمندان توصیه میکنند بمنظور زندگی بر اساس الگوی‬
‫پایداری انسان نیازمند به مطالعه دقیق مسیر حیات در زمین‬
‫و آموختن نحوه بقای حیات و انطباق با تغییرات عمده‬
‫زیست محیطی در طول میلیونها سال میباشد‪.‬‬
‫• این اصول عبارتند از‪ )1 :‬اتکا به انرژی خورشیدی‪)2 ،‬‬
‫تنوع زیستی و بهره گیری از روشهای انطباق با شرایط‬
‫متحول زیست محیطی‪ )3 ،‬کنترل و تعادل جمعیت با توجه‬
‫به محدودیت منابع برای تغذیه و رشد و تولید مثل‪ )4 ،‬و‬
‫چرخه تغذیه و انتقال مواد شیمیایی مورد نیاز گیاهان و‬
‫جانوران از طبیعت به ارگانهای زنده و بعکس‬
Main Concepts
Main concepts
• Element )‫ (عنصر‬is a fundamental substance with unique set of
properties that cannot broken down into simpler substances by
chemical means.
• Matter )‫ (ماده‬is any thing that has mass and taken up space and
composed of elements and compounds, which are in turn made up
of Atoms, Ions, or Molecules
• Compound )‫ (ترکیب‬is combinations of two or more different
elements held together in fixed proportions .
• Atom is the most smallest of matter in which an element can be
divided and still retain its chemical properties.
• Molecule is a combination of two or more atoms of the same or
different elements held together by forces called chemical bonds.
• Chemical formula is used to show the number of each type of atom
or ion in the compound.
• Energy is the capacity to do work or transfer heat. W=F.D
• Energy has two form. Kinetic E )‫ (جنبشی‬and potential Energy )‫(استاتیک‬
‫قوانین مهم در محیط زیست‬
• The law of conservation of matter )‫(قانون بقای ماده‬:
When matter undergoes a physical or chemical
change, no atoms are created or destroyed.
• The first law of thermodynamics )‫(قانون بقای انرژی‬:
when energy is converted from one form to another
in a physical or chemical change, no energy is created
or destroyed.
• The second law of thermodynamics )‫ (قانون دوم ترمو‬:
when energy changes from one form to another, it
always end up with lower quality or less usable
energy than started with.
Ecology classification- Organism
• To understand nature, it is classified to: Atom,
Molecule, Cell, Organism, Population, Community,
Ecosystem, and Biosphere.
• Ecologists study Organism, Population, Community,
Ecosystem, Biosphere
• Ecology contains:
– Organisms; Organisms is a living substance on
surface layer of earth (biosphere), air (atmosphere),
land( lithosphere), and water (hydrosphere)
• Every organism is a member of certain species
with certain traits.
• Species: A set of individuals that can mate and
produce fertile offspring.
• There are 1.8 millions identified species, it guests
that there are 10-14 mm species and estimated
that earth probably have till 100 mm species.
Ecology classification- Population & Community
– Population; is a group of individuals of the same species
that living in the same place at the same time. They are
varied genetically.
• Genetic diversity: variation in a population, don’t all
look or act alike
• Habitat: a place where population or an individual
organisms live in. it has certain resource such as water.
It contains environmental conditions such as
temperature and light. It maybe as large as an ocean or
as small as timber of a tree and called Natural Address
of a specie.
– Community;
– Biological community: consist of all populations of
different species that living in the particular place and
many of them interact with one another in feeding and
other relationships.
Ecology classification-Ecosystem
• Ecology comes from oikos (place to live) and logos
(study of) used by Ernst Haeckel in 1869
• Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with
one another (biotic) and with their physical
environment of matter and energy (abiotic) or the
science of connections in nature.
• It can range in size, natural and artificial, has no clear
boundaries and are not isolated from one another.
• Matter and energy move from one to other
ecosystems
• The ecosystem is composed of various of inputs,
processes or stores and outputs.
• It should maintains its dynamic equilibrium.
Ecosystem definitions
• A.G. Tansly definition: A particular category of physical
systems consisting of organisms and inorganic components
in a relatively stable equilibrium, open and in various kinds
and sizes
‫وضعیت خاصی از سیستمهای فیزیکی مشتمل بر ارگانهای زنده و مواد غیر‬
‫زنده است که بصورت باز و در اندازه و اشکال متفاوت پایداری خود را‬
.‫بصورت نسبی برقرار میسازد‬
• I.G Simmons definition: A unit of space-time containing
living organisms interacting with each others and with their
abiotic environment by the interchange of energy and
materials
‫زمانی مشتمل بر ارگانیزمهای زنده‬-‫یک مجموعه یکپارچه چهار بعدی فضا‬
‫است که در تعامل با یکدیگر و با محیط ابیوتیک پیرامونی انرژی و مواد‬
Ecology classification-Biosphere
• It consists of the parts of the earth’s air, water,
and soil where life is found.
• A global ecosystem in which all organisms
exist and interact with one another.
Sustaining life on Earth
• Life is sustained by flow of energy from sun through
the biosphere, cycling of nutrients within the
biosphere, and gravity. The earth depends on three
interdependent factors:
• 1)Energy flow: One-way flow of high-quality energy
from sun for feeding interactions of organisms. It
changes to low quality energy and cannot be
recycled. (First and 2th laws of thermodynamics)
• 2)Cycling of matter or nutrients through part of
Biosphere for survival. Because Earth is closed to
space matter, nutrient should be recycled to support
life. (law of conservation of matters)
• 3)Gravity enable the movement of chemicals through
air, water, soil, and organisms and held its
Life-support system
Four major components
• Atmosphere: it(air) is a thin spherical envelope
of gases surrounding the earth’s surface.
• Hydrosphere: it(water) consists of all water on
or near the earth’s surface and covers 71% of
the globe.
• Geosphere: it(rock, soil, sediment) consists of
the earth’s intense.
• Biosphere: it(living things) occupies those
parts of other 3s where live exists.
Atmosphere
• Troposphere: is the inner layer of atmosphere with
the extension of 17 km above sea level at tropics and
7 km at poles.
• Greenhouse gases: are the 1% of remaining gases
(H2O, CO2, CH4) out of 78% N2 plus 21% of O2
which make up air in troposphere.
• Stratosphere: is the upper layer next to T stretching
17-50 km with O3 to filter harmful ultraviolet
radiation of sun and allows life to exist
Hydrosphere
• Liquid water: exist on the surface and
underground
• Ice: in form of polar ice and iceberg
• Permafrost: the ice frozen soil layer
• Water vapor: the water which exist in the air
• saline water: exist in the seas and oceans and
cover 71% of the globe
Geosphere and Biosphere
• Geosphere consist of hot core )‫(هسته‬, a thick mantle)‫ (غشاء‬,
and a thin outer crust )‫ (پوسته‬.
• Biosphere is a thin layer of the combination of A, H, and G
extended from 9km above earth surface to bottom of the
ocean where life exist.
• Biomes: a large region of terrestrial part of biosphere such as
forest, desert, grasslands etc with distinct climate and certain
specious
• Aquatic life zones: watery part of biosphere which consists of
freshwater life zone and marine life zone.
• The goal of ecology is to understand the interactions in this
thin layer of air, water, soil, and organisms.
Ecosystem components
• Abiotic consists of nonliving components such
as water, air, nutrients, rocks, heat, and solar
energy.
• Biotic consists of living and once living
biological components such as plants, animals,
microbes, dead organisms, dead part of
organisms, and the waste products of
organisms.
Ecosystem and population growth
• Range of tolerance: each population in an ecosystem
has a range of tolerance to variations in its physical
and chemical environment.
• Ecological principal of limiting factors: Too much or
too little of any abiotic factors can limit or prevent
growth of a population, even if all other factors are
at or near the optimal range of tolerance.
• Main abiotic limiting factors: A) include temperature,
sunlight, nutrient availability, low solubility of O2,
and salinity in aquatic life zone. B) include
Precipitation, soil nutrient, temperature in biomass.
Ecosystems’ producers & consumers
• Every organism in an ecosystem is assign to a feeding level or
trophic level.
• Trophic level: is the feeding level of every organisms in an
ecosystem that transfer energy and nutrient from one to
another level and can classify to P & C.
• Autotrophs: or producers or self-feeders make the nutrients
they need from compounds and energy obtained from their
environment such as green plants, algae, and phytoplankton.
They changed solar energy (1%) and stored chemical energy
through photosynthesis. There are bacteria using geothermal
energy (H2S) by process called chemosynthesis in deep
oceans.
• Heterotrophs: or consumers or other-feeders obtain their
nutrient by feeding on other organisms, producers or other
consumers, or their remains and not produce their needs
Heterotrophs or consumers
• Primary consumers or herbivores: plant eaters
• Secondary consumers or carnivores: meat eaters
• Higher-level consumers: carnivores that feed on the
other carnivores
• Omnivores: feeding on both plants and animals
• Decomposers: release nutrient from dead body of
plants and animals to soil for reuse ‫باکتریها و قارچها‬
• Detritus feeders or Detritivores: feed on waste or
dead body of other organisms.‫ کنه ها‬،‫ کرکس‬،‫کرم خاکی‬
Energy flew
• All Producers, Consumers and Decomposers use
chemical energy stored (glucose) to fuel their life
processes and release this energy by aerobic
respiration )‫(تنفس هوازی‬
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 = 6CO2 + 6 H2O + energy
• Some decomposers use cellular respiration in the
absence of O2, called anaerobic respiration or
fermentation )‫(تخمیر‬and end up by producing
methane gas CH4 or ethyl alcohol C2H6O2, or acetic
acid C2H4O2
• Energy flews through ecosystems in food chain and web while
the amount of chemical energy available to organisms at each
succeeding feeding level decreases
Food chain in Ecosystems
• Food chain determines how chemical energy and
nutrients move from one form of organisms to
another through the trophic level in an ecosystem
through photosynthesis, feeding and decomposition.
It chnges some useful energy to the heat.
• Food web is a complex network of interconnected
food chain which shows how a consumer organism
feed on one or more type of producer organisms in
the natural ecosystems.
• Food chains and webs demonstrate how producers,
consumers, and decomposers are connected to one
another as energy flows through trophic levels of E,s
Differentiation of Ecosystems by Energy usage
• Loss of energy in organisms; the more trophic levels there are in food
chain, the greater is the accumulative loss of usable chemical energy as it
flows through the T.L.
• Ecological efficiency of energy ranges from 2-40% (loss of 60-98%),
depending what type of species and ecosystems are involved, but 10% is
typical.
• Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) is the rate at which an ecosystem’s
producers (plants) convert solar energy into chemical energy as biomass
found in their tissues. (kcal/m2/yr)
• To stay alive, grow and reproduce, producers must use some of chemical
energy stored in the biomass they make for their respiration.
• Net Primary Productivity (NPP) is the rate at which producers use
photosynthesis to produce and store chemical energy minus the rate at
which they use some of this stored chemical energy though aerobic
respiration.
• NPP = GPP – R R is energy used in respirations
• Ecosystems differ in their NPP and decrease from equator toward poles
Ecosystems classification
• Terrestrial Ecosystems
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
swamps and marshes (9600 kcal/m2/yr)
Tropical rain forest (8800)
Temperate forest (5600)
Savanna (3200)
Agricultural lands (3000)
Woodland and shrub land (2800)
Grasslands (2400)
Alpine and Tundra (700)
Desert (250)
Extreme Desert (100)
• Aquatic Ecosystems
–
–
–
–
Estuaries ( 8800)
Lakes and streams (2300)
Continental shelf (1500)
Open ocean (1100)
Biodiversity
• Biological diversity: is a variety of the Earth’s species, the
genes they contain, the ecosystems in which they live, and the
ecosystem processes such as energy flow and nutrient cycling
that sustain all life. It is a vital renewable resource.
• Genes diversity: is a part of BD that enable life on the Earth to
adapt to and survive dramatic environmental changes and
sustain the life of Earth.
• Species diversity: is the most obvious component of BD. There
are 4-100 million species, 1.8 M identified including a million
of insects, 270000 plants, 45000 vertebrate.
• Ecosystem diversity : is a storehouse of genetic and species D.
• Functional diversity: is the variety of process such as matter
cycling and energy flow taking place within the ecosystems as
species interact in food chains and webs