Download Behaviorism Knowledge Base

I. Content
Presentation
II. Learning
Situation
III. Observation
IV. Reflection
Defining Learning
 Definition of Behaviorism
 Three earlier behaviorists and their contributions

› Ivan Pavlov
› B.F. Skinner
› E.L. Thorndike

Theories and principles
› Classical conditioning
› Operant conditioning
› Contrasting two major types of conditioning

Instructional application

Learning is a long-term change in
observable behavior that occurs as a
result of experience, it involves mental
representations or associations.
Back
Definition of
Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors
are acquired through conditioning, which occurs through interaction with
the environment.
Principles of Learning should apply equally to organism.
learning process can be studied most abjectly when the focus of study is
on stimuli.
Basic
Assumption
Internal processes are largely excluded from scientific study.
Learning involves a behavior change.
Organisms are born as blank slates
Learning is largely the result of environmental events.
The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious.
Two major
types of
conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Instrumental Conditioning/Operant Conditioning
Back
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

The father of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a learning process that
occurs through associations between an
environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring
stimulus.

A Classical Conditioning analysis of how Pavlov’s
dog learned (Click to watch the video):
Figure 1 How Pavlov’s dog learned
Step 1: Bell (NS)
No Response
Step 2: Bell (NS)
Salivate (UCR)
Meat (UCS)
Step 3: Bell (CS)
Salivate (CR)
Back

Four conditions that maximize Learning:
›
Law of Effort: Responses followed by
satisfaction are strengthened and more likely to
repeated; responses followed by discomfort
are more likely not to be repeated.
›
Law of Recency: The most recent response is
likely to govern the recurrence.
›
Law of Exercise: People learning by doing.
Stimulus-response associations are
strengthened through repetition.
›
Law of Readiness: Learning is dependent upon
the learner's readiness to act, which facilitates
the strengthening of the bond between stimulus
and response.
E.L. Thorndike (1874-1949)
Back

Proposed the theory Operant conditioning
›

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Behavior is determined by its consequences,
be they reinforcements or punishments, and
the nature of the consequence modifies the
organisms tendency to repeat the behavior
in the future.
Influence on education
Five Main Obstacles to learning
Instructional Principles
People have a fear of failure
Give the learner immediate
feedback
The task is not broken down into
small enough steps.
Break down the task into
small steps
There is a lack of directions
Repeat the directions as
many times as possible
There is also a lack of clarity in
the directions
Work from the most simple to
the most complex tasks
Positive reinforcement is lacking
Give positive reinforcement
Back
Definition
Basic Principle
Common
Phenomena
Classical conditioning is a process of behavior modification by which a subject comes to respond in
a desired manner to a previously neutral stimulus that has been repeatedly presented along with an
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that elicits the desired response
When stimulus and response occur with each under reinforcing conditions, learning will form.
Associative Bias
Associations between certain stimuli are more likely to be make than are
associations between others.
Importance of
Contingency
UCS and the would-be conditional stimulus (CS) need to be presented at
approximately the same time.
Extinction
The CR disappear when the CS is repeatedly presented in the absence of the UCS
Spontaneous
Recovery
The reappearance of conditioned response after it had previously been
extinguished.
Generalization
Learners respond to other stimuli in the same way that they respond to CS.
Stimulus
Discrimination
The differentiation between two stimulus.
Higher-order
Conditioning
A neutral stimulus is paired with a CS1 to produce the same CR as the CS1, and
finally becomes CS2
Sensory
Preconditioning
An individual can develop a CR to a stimulus that has never been directly paired
with an UCS.
Practice is important
Educational
Implications
Students should encounter academic subject matter in a positive climate and associate it with
positive emotions.
To break a bad habit, a learner must replace one S-R connection with another one
Assessing learning involves looking for behavior changes
Back
Definition
A method of learning that occurs through reinforcement and punishment for a behavior
Basic
Principle
Behavior is determined by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments, and the nature of the
consequence modifies the organisms tendency to repeat the behavior in the future
Basic
Concepts
Effects of
Antecedent
Stimuli and
Responses
Back
Baseline
The frequency of an operant behavior in the absence of reinforcement.
Terminal Behavior
The form and frequency of a desired response at the end of a planned reinforcement
program, described in concrete and observable terms.
Superstitious
Behavior
Randomly administered reinforcement tends to reinforce whatever response has
occurred immediately beforehand, and an organism will increase that response.
Shaping
A process of reinforcing in which the increasingly accurate approximations of a
desired response are reinforced
Chaining
An instructional procedure which involves reinforcing individual responses occurring
in a sequence to form a complex behavior.
Extinction
Decline of the response when it is no longer reinforced in the presence of stimulus.
Reinforcement
Schedules
A protocol for determining when responses or behaviors will be reinforced, ranging from
continuous reinforcement, in which every response is reinforced, and extinction, in which
no response is reinforced.
Avoidance Learning
The process of learning to stay away from an aversive stimulus.
Cueing
Using discriminative stimuli elicit a specific behavior or reflex, as a result of a learned
association
Setting events
Complex environmental conditions, under which certain behaviors are most likely to
occur
Generalization
Responding in the same, previously learned way to a similar stimulus.
Stimulus
Discrimination
Tendency for a response to happen only when a particular stimulus is present
Behavioral
Momentum
Organisms are more likely to make desired responses if they are already making similar
responses
Positive
occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus that is
rewarding, increasing the frequency of that behavior
Negative
occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an
aversive stimulus, thereby increasing that behavior's frequency
Positive
occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus, such as
introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.
Negative
occurs when a behavior is followed by the removal of a stimulus, resulting
in a decrease in that behavior.
Reinforcement
Punishment
Figure 2. Contrasting Reinforcement and Punishment
Positive Reinforcement
(Present pleasant stimulus)
Negative Reinforcement
(Remove aversive stimulus)
Reinforcement
Increase
Response
Punishment I
(Present aversive stimulus)
Punishment II
(Remove pleasant stimulus)
Punishment
Decrease
Response
Back
Figure 3. Contrasting Classical Conditioning with Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Same in defining learning: Learning is a relatively permanent change in observable
behavior as a result of experience, it is predicated on the conditioning of stimuli and
responses.
Same common phenomena: Extinction, Spontaneous recovery and stimulus
generalization
Learning occurs when two stimuli (UCS&CS)
are paired
Learning occurs when response is followed
by reinforcing stimuli
Association between stimuli and responses
Association requires reinforcement
Based on involuntary reflexive behavior
Based on voluntary behavior
Back

Create students a positive learning environment associate with pleasant
emotions

Provide precise observable and measurable learning objectives before
conditioning begins

Repeat the directions as many times as possible

Bread down the task into steps (chaining)

Work from simple to complex tasks (shaping)

Guide students with cues (visual, verbal, gestural, physical)

Reinforce accomplishment with appropriate and immediate feedbacks
The repetition of S-R habits can strengthen those habits
To break a bad habit, a learner must replace one S-R connection with
another one
Assessing learning involves looking for behavior changes



Back

Programmed Instruction: Material is learned through a series of discrete
frames that include content and questions. If the learner answers a question
correctly, they proceed onto a new frame with new content. Those who
answer the question incorrectly are directed to remedial material on the
subject for more practice.

Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI): CAI is computerized programmed
instruction. CAI eliminates the bulk of paper-based programmed instruction
and can automatically redirect students to new frames.

Mastery Learning: Material is learned through a series of discrete units. In order
to proceed to the next unit, a learner must master the current material.
Remedial units are used to help learners who have difficulty with the material.

Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA): A person’s environment is modified to
reinforce desired behaviors and non-reinforcement of undesirable behaviors.
Behavior is measured before, after, and throughout the treatment and is
compared with the desired terminal behavior. Group ABA often involves the
use of token systems.
Back
Learning
Situation
Learning Situation
Explanation
Explanation
The trainer started the session by asking
asking “What
“What types
types of
of clothes
clothes are
are
appropriate for your working environment?"
environment?" The
The new
new employees
employees began
to
began
respond.
to respond.
As eachAsnew
each
employee
new employee
provided
provided
a response,
a response,
the trainer
the
gave
trainerhim/her
gave him/her
positivepositive
feedbacks
feedbacks
such assuch
“Good
as “Good
answer”,
answer”,
repeated the
answer
repeated
and
the
wrote
answer
it down
and wrote
on theitboard.
down on the board.
Pleasant
Pleasantlearning
learning
environment
environment
Appropriate
Appropriateand
and
immediate
immediatefeedback
feedback
(Positive
(Positivereinforcement)
reinforcement)
Without
a rationale
rationale to
to the
the learners
learners the
the trainer
trainerpurposively
purposively Chaining
Chaining
Without providing
providing a
arranged
by male
male and
and female
female clothing
clothing (e.g.
(e.g. blouse,
blouse, skirts,
skirts,pants,
pants, Shaping
arranged the
the list
list by
Shaping
jacket)
accessories (e.g.
(e.g. shoes,
shoes, ties,
ties, belts).
belts). The
Thetrainer
trainerthen
thenasked
asked
jacket) and
and accessories
for
description of
of the
the items
items from
from the
thelearns,
learns,for
forexample
examplethe
thelength
lengthofof
for a
a description
the
the skirt,
skirt, or
or type
type of
of blouse,
blouse, or
or appropriate
appropriate colors.
colors.
As
As each
each new
new employee
employee provided
provided a
a response,
response, the
the trainer
trainer gave
gave him/her
him/her
positive
feedback,
repeated
the
answer
and
wrote
it
down
near
positive feedback, repeated the answer and wrote it down near the
the
related
item.
related item.
Appropriateand
and
Appropriate
immediatefeedback
feedback
immediate
(Positivereinforcement)
reinforcement)
(Positive
The
and descriptive
descriptive process
process repeated
repeated on
on few
few additional
additional Appropriate
Appropriateand
and
The recording
recording and
items.
trainer then
then asked
asked the
the learners
learners to
to review
review the
the list
list on
on the
the immediate
immediatefeedback
feedback
items. The
The trainer
blackboard
asked ifif all
all items
items were
were suitable
suitable for
for their
their working
working (Positive
(Positivereinforcement)
reinforcement)
blackboard and
and asked
environment.
each learner
learner provided
provided aa response
responsethe
thetrainer
trainergave
gave
environment. After
After each
him/her
feedback and
and asked
asked the
the next
nextperson
personto
torespond.
respond.This
This
him/her positive
positive feedback
continued
continued until
until all
all who
who wanted
wanted to
to participate
participate did.
did.
Back
Learning Situation
Explanation
Keeping the question “Are all items listed on the blackboard
suitable for your working environment?” the learners
watched a video about a world famous enterprise in the
same field. In the video, all employees were in different
professional dress. After watching, the learners were divided
in to groups to discuss the previous questions and to share
their answers after the discussion
Guide learners with cues
At the end of the training, the trainer emphasized company’s
punishment policy regarding inappropriate dressing.
Punishment (Reinforcing
stimulus)
During the following one month, every new employee
received an E-mail each week from the training department,
which included an evaluation of their weekly dressing and
the corresponding suggestions
Appropriate feedbacks
Repetition of S-R habits
Back
Activities
Baseline is identified
Shaping
Learning
environment
is pleasant
Trainer’s
Instruction
Chaining
Observation Results
□No
□□
Yes Yes □No
□
□No
□ Yes Yes□No
Breaking Activity
down the tasks into steps (chaining)
Reinforcement Schedule
□□
Yes Yes □No
□No
Working from simple to complex tasks (shaping)
Setting Effects
□ Yes
Guiding learners with cues
□ Yes
□ Yes □No□No
Avoidance
Stimulus and responses connections areLearning
repeatedly
used
□ Yes □No□No
□ Yes
□No
□ Yes □No
□ Yes
□No
□ Yes □No□No
□ Yes
□No
□□
Yes Yes □No
□No
□□
Yes Yes □No
□□
Yes Yes □No
□No
Continuous reinforcement for the expected behavior
□ Yes
Social Reinforcement
Trainer’sobjectives
Reinforcement
Learning
are clear and observable
Administer Reinforcement Consistently
Implementation of positive reinforcement
Learning is divided into small units
Implementation negative reinforcement
Reinforcement on response is immediate
Use of Learning
Implementation
of punishment
Strategies
Trainer allows
new employees to practice
Providing appropriate and immediate
feedbacks
□No
Back

How does behaviorism inform the design of instruction?
›
According to behaviorism, people learning by doing. Learning occurs
when the response is associated with stimulus, and the repetition of
stimulus-response associations can strengthen learning. So, when
designing an instruction, the application of stimulus should be well
considered. The stimulus can be applied in different ways, like create
learners a pleasant and relax learning environment, give learners positive
and immediate feedbacks, and provide learners appropriate
punishment to decrease unexpected behaviors. Moreover, behavior is
determined by it consequences. A too hard instruction or an instruction
lack of direction might depress learners, and makes them refuse to learn.
So a hard task should be break down into small pieces, learners work
from the simple to hard pieces, clear directions should be provided to
learners constantly, and interactive learning activities should be
designed to engage learning.
Back

What questions do you still have about behaviorism?
›
Behaviorism defines learning as “observable change”. I would argue that
learning is not always observable. Like the new employees in my learning
situation. By taking the training program, the new employees learn how
to dress professional during the working hours. Well, assuming one of the
new employees quit the job and worked for another company that had
no professional dressing requirement, and that employee preferred to
dress casually during the working hours, then, we would not be able to
figure out whether he had learnt how to dress professional in the working
environment or not. So my question is, is there any learning behavior that
is unobservable? If there is, how do behaviorism define such kind of
learning behavior?
Back

How were the classroom activities in this unit reflective of
behaviorism?
›
There are so many classroom activities reflect behaviorism. The syllabus
which included the overall course introduction, course goals, learning
objectives, course expectations, course schedule and some other
important course information was provided to students ahead of time.
The instructor was nice and the learning environment was pleasant and
relax. For example, the first class was initiated by a fun classroom activity,
that was, learning how to draw an elephant. And then, the instructor use
elephant as an example to teach students how learning happened on
animals. Moreover, many instructional strategies were used throughout
the classes, like classroom discussion and group discussion. The instructor
always gave immediate and positive feedback no matter the answer
was right or wrong. In this way, every student was willing to participate in
the discussion. Also, considering learning theories were new for most of
the students, knowledge were break down into chunks to make them
easier to understand. Besides, there were precise and clear assignment
rubrics to facilitate students’ assignment completion.
Back

How have your ideas about learning and instruction changed
and why?
›
Before taking this course, I had no idea about the two stimuli (conditional
stimulus and unconditional stimulus), neither realized that learning
occurred when the two stimuli were paired. I will apply this principle in my
future instructional design. Many instructional principles are based on this
learning principle. For example, create learner pleasant learning
environment, give learner positive and immediate feedback, repeat the
directions as many time as possible, use punishment to decrease
unexpected behavior, and replace good S-R connection with the bad
one to break the bad habit. Besides, shaping and chaining are also
useful instructional design principle. Because breaking down the task in to
small steps and making students work from simple to complex task can
facilitate the whole learning process, and make students feel
comfortable and enjoyable.
Back

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Ormrod J.E. (2008) Human Learning (5th). Upper Saddle River, NJ:Pearson
Education, Inc.
Classical Conditioning. Retrieved Sep. 20, 2008 from
http://www.answers.com/topic/classical-conditioning
Kendra Cherry. Introduction to Operant Conditioning. Retrieved Nov. 10 from
http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/introopcond.html
Extinction (psychology). Retrieved Sep. 20, 2008 from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_(psychology)
Reinforcement. Retrieved Sep. 21, 2008 from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning Terms. Retrieved Sep. 21, 2008 from
http://www.honoluluzoo.org/enrichment_operant_cond_terms.htm
Learning and Conditioning. Retrieved Sep. 22, 2008 from
http://www.sparknotes.com/101/psychology/learning_and_conditioning/operant
_conditioning.html
From Theory to Practice: Behaviorist Principles of Learning and Instruction.
Retrieved Nov. 10 from http://www.otl.wayne.edu/pdf/newsltr/dec02.pdf
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