Download The Benzophenanthridine Alkaloid Fagaronine Induces

Claude Dupont1
Eric Couillerot2
Reynald Gillet1
Catherine Caron3
Monique Zeches-Hanrot3
Jean-FrancËois Riou1
Chantal Trentesaux1
The Benzophenanthridine Alkaloid Fagaronine Induces
Erythroleukemic Cell Differentiation by Gene
Activation
Fagaronine, a benzophenanthridine alkaloid from Fagara zanthoxyloides Lam. (Rutaceae), has been tested on the erythroleukemic cell line K562 in order to explain some previous results
on cell differentiation. In this study we showed that fagaronine
induces a significant hemoglobinization of the human erythroleukemic cell line K562. This hemoglobin synthesis was accompanied by a strong increase of erythroid mRNA expression such
as g- and a-globin, and PBGD, an enzyme of heme synthesis. In
addition, the Epo-R transcripts were also stimulated indicating
that cells are engaged in a maturation process. Both transcription
factors GATA-1 and NF-E2, which play an important role in the
regulation of genes involved in the erythroid differentiation,
were also transcriptionally up-regulated. To elucidate the possible role of GATA-1 in the FAG-induced differentiation of K562
cells, we transfected reporter constructs containing regulatory
regions of erythroid genes encompassing GATA-1 binding sites.
After 48 hours of treatment, FAG stimulated the EPO-R and g-globin promoters by 2- to 3-fold and the promoter/enhancer region
Introduction
Leukemic cells can be considered as maturation-arrested cells
that continue to proliferate and rapidly accumulate, escaping
of GATA-1 gene by 3.2-fold. A mutation within the GATA-1 binding sites strongly decreased the promoter activation induced by
FAG. Taken together, our results represent a demonstration that
FAG exerts its differentiating activity by a specific activation of
the regulating GATA-1 regions of genes involved in the erythroid
phenotype expression.
Original Paper
Abstract
Key words
Fagaronine ´ K562 cell differentiation ´ leukemia ´ erythroid gene
expression ´ GATA-1 transcription factor
Abbreviations
ACLA:
aclacinomycin
FAG:
fagaronine
PBGD: porphobilinogene deaminase
EPO-R: erythropoietin receptor
GAPDH: glyceraldehydes 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
FCS:
fetal calf serum
the normal regulatory pathways controlling cell proliferation
and differentiation. Numerous physiological as well as nonphysiological agents, including antitumor drugs, have been described to induce differentiation of leukemic cells [1]. A complete
Affiliation
JE 2428 Onco-Pharmacologie, UFR Pharmacie, IFR 53 BiomolØcules, UniversitØ de Reims
Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
2
Laboratoire de Stress, DØfenses et Reproduction des Plantes, URVVC EA2069, UFR Sciences, UniversitØ de
Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
3
Laboratoire de Pharmacognosie, FRE 2715 CNRS UFR Pharmacie, UniversitØ de Reims Champagne-Ardenne,
Reims, France
1
Correspondence
Chantal Trentesaux ´ JE 2428 Onco-Pharmacologie ´ UFR Pharmacie ´ IFR 53 BiomolØcules ´ UniversitØ de Reims
Champagne-Ardenne ´ 51 rue Cognacq Jay ´ 51096 Reims cedex ´ France ´ Phone: +33-326-918-045 ´
Fax: +33-326-918926 ´ E-mail: [email protected]
Received August 9, 2004 ´ Accepted January 6, 2005
Bibliography
Planta Med 2005; 71: 489±494 ´ Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart ´ New York
DOI 10.1055/s-2005-864147
ISSN 0032-0943
489
remission by differentiation therapy was obtained in patients
with acute promyelocytic leukemia treated by all-trans-retinoic
acid (ATRA) [2].
Original Paper
490
Our group previously demonstrated that anthracycline antitumor
drugs such as aclacinomycin (ACLA) and doxorubicin (DOX), at
subtoxic concentrations, induced in vitro the erythroid differentiation of human leukemic K562 cells, leading to the appearance of
hemoglobinized cells. ACLA stimulated the transcription of genes
involved in hemoglobin synthesis, by the recruitment of erythroid-specific transcription factors, notably GATA-1 and NF-E2
[3], [4], [5]. In contrast, DOX induced the hemoglobinization of
these cells by a post-transcriptional mechanism leading to an increased stability of the erythroid transcripts [5].
Among the other compounds able to stimulate erythroid differentiation, the benzo[c]phenanthridine alkaloid fagaronine (FAG)
(Fig.1) was also reported to induce the hemoglobinization of
K562 cells [6] but through an unknown mechanism. Other works
have established that FAG displays an antileukemic activity
against murine leukemia P388 in vivo [7], inhibits DNA polymerase activity in murine embryos [8], nucleic acid and protein synthesis in KB cells, respectively [9]. These biological activities are
related to its properties to intercalate DNA and to interact with
the ribosomal system [10]. FAG also inhibits the activities of the
DNA topoisomerases I and II [11], [12], human DNA ligase I [13]
and reverse transcriptases from RNA virus [14], especially the human HIV-1 reverse transcriptase in vitro [15].
Since ACLA was also reported to intercalate DNA and to inhibit
topoisomerase I activity [16], we wondered whether the differentiating activity of FAG is triggered by similar molecular events
related to transcriptional mechanisms.
We have studied the erythroid gene expression induced by FAG
in the human erythroid K562 cell line using RT-PCR and reporter
gene analysis. Our results clearly indicate that FAG stimulates
erythroid gene transcription through a mechanism involving
the GATA-1 transcription factors.
Material and Methods
Plant material
The roots of Fagara zanthoxyloides Lam. were collected in 1999,
in the Ivory Coast and identified by Dr. C. Moretti. A voucher specimen (No. 15 042) is kept at the Herbarium of the National Center of Floristics, University of Cocody, Abidjan, Ivory Coast.
Extraction and isolation
Dried roots of Fagara zanthoxyloides (50 g), defatted with light
petroleum (1 L), were extracted with MeOH (1 L) at room tem-
Fig. 1 Structure of fagaronine.
perature. The MeOH solution, on evaporation under reduced
pressure gave an extract (2.2 g) which was dissolved in 0.02 N
HCl (50 mL). The aqueous solution was precipitated by Mayer's
reagent (20 mL) and the precipitate (390 mg) was dissolved in
MeOH-Me2CO-H2O (6 : 2 : 1). The alkaloids were converted to
the chlorides by passage through an Amberlite IRA 400 (60
mL) column. After concentration under reduced pressure, a residue (212 mg) was obtained. This gave pure fagaronine (25 mg) as
bright yellow needles after three crystallizations from a mixture
of ethyl acetate-methanol: m. p. 202 8C followed by solidification
and melting again at 255 8C; spectral data (UV, 1H-NMR 500 MHz
and MS) were as given in [7].
Cell line and induction of erythroid differentiation
The human erythroleukemic K562 cells were cultured in RPMI
1640 Glutamax medium, 10 % FCS (Invitrogen) as previously described [3]. FAG chloride was reconstituted in 70 % ethanol as a
0.1 M stock solution and diluted in the culture medium immediately before use. Various FAG concentrations were added to the
K562 cell suspensions at the beginning of the exponential
growth phase. Cell cultures were incubated in a 5 % CO2 humidified atmosphere at 37 8C during 72 hours. Growth inhibition and
cell viability were evaluated as previously described [3]. After 3
days of treatment, the number of erythroid differentiated cells
was determined by scoring benzidine-positive cells. K562 cells
were stained using a benzidine-H2O2 method and gave an intense blue cytoplasmic staining known to correlate with hemoglobin synthesis. As previously described [6], an average of 300
cells was scored for benzidine-positivity and the results are
expressed in percent.
RNA extraction and RT-PCR analysis
Total RNA was extracted from 5 ” 106 cells using the TriZOL reagent (Invitrogen) as recommended by the manufacturer. One
microgram of total RNA was reverse transcribed in a 20 mL reaction volume using oligo-dT primers, Superscript II reverse transcriptase (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer's instructions. At the end of the reaction, the volume of the RT products
was adjusted to 200 mL with DNase RNase-free water. A 10 mL aliquot of cDNA was used for PCR amplification using a -[32P]-dCTP
(NEN) and gene specific primers of: g-globin (forward: 5¢GGCAACCTGTCCTCTGCCTC-3¢; reverse: 5¢-GCCAGGAAGCTTGCACCTCA-3¢) [17]; a-globin (forward: 5¢-TGGGGTAAGGTCGGCGCGCA-3¢; reverse: 5¢-TGCACCGCAGGGGTGAACTC-3¢) [18]; PBGD
(forward: 5¢-GGTCCTACTATCGCCTCCCTC-3¢; reverse: 5¢-AGAATCTTGTCCCCTGTGGTG-3¢); Epo-R (forward: 5¢-AGCCTGTGTCGCTGCTGACGC-3¢; reverse: 5¢-GGTCCTCCGTGAAGGGGGTGC-3¢);
GATA-1 (forward: 5¢-GATCCTGCTCTGGTGTCCTCC-3¢; reverse: 5¢ACAGTTGAGCAATGGGTACAC-3¢) [17]; NF-E2 (forward: 5¢-ATTTGAGCCCCAAGCCCCAGC-3¢; reverse: 5¢-CCAGCCTCTGTCCCCTCCAGC-3¢). Amplification of GAPDH was performed as control
using the same PCR conditions with primer (forward: 5¢-CTCTGCCC CCTCTGCTGATGC-3¢; reverse: 5¢-CCATCACGCCACAGTTTCCCG-3¢). PCR was performed using Taq DNA polymerase (Invitrogen) with the following cycling conditions: 94 8C for 2 min,
followed by 15 ± 25 cycles of 94 8C for 30 sec, 60 8C for 30 sec,
and 72 8C for 60 sec and at the last cycle the reaction was maintained at 72 8C for 10 min to finish cDNA chain elongation. Amplified products were analyzed on 6 % non-denaturating polyacrylamide gels in 1 ” TBE. After electrophoresis, the gels were
Dupont C et al. The Benzophenanthridine Alkaloid ¼ Planta Med 2005; 71: 489 ± 494
exposed and quantified on a GS-363 Molecular Imager (BioRad).
Transient transfection of K562 cells and analysis of reporter
gene signal
Reporter constructs were prepared by insertion of promoter and
enhancer regions in restriction sites of pGL2-basic plasmids,
respectively, upstream and downstream of the firefly luciferase
gene as described previously [4]. K562 cells were transfected by
these reporter plasmids using the transferrinfection technique
(Transferrinfection kit, Serva). Briefly, 6 mg plasmid DNA were
mixed with 10 mg Fe-loaded transferrin-polylysine complex in a
0.5 mL 200 mM HEPES buffer (pH 7.2). This mix was added to
pretreated (24 h incubation in culture medium containing
50 mM desferroxamine) K562 cells in a proportion of 1 mL of culture medium containing 50 mM desferroxamine and 100 mM
chloroquine for 3 ” 105 cells. After 6 h at 37 8C, for DNA capture,
cells were washed once with RPMI, divided into equal parts, and
then cultivated in the same medium with or without FAG for 24
or 48 h. Cells were resuspended in 0.25 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5) and
cellular extracts were obtained by three cycles of freezing-thawing. The amount of protein in the extracts was determined by
using the Bio-Rad protein assay. Luciferase activity in the extracts was tested with the Luciferase Assay Kit (Promega) in
accordance with the manufacturer's instructions and quantified
using a Lumac-3M luminometer (Bertold). An absolute signal
was determined as the maximal rate of the sample luminescence
during the first minute of the assay and the activities were finally
expressed as light units/mg of protein.
Results
Hemoglobinized cell content and growth inhibition of human
leukemic K562 cells were evaluated after 3 days of treatment by
various FAG concentrations (Fig. 2). FAG induced a dose-dependent hemoglobinization of K562 cells. The maximal differentiating effect of around 60 % was obtained at 6 mM FAG and maintained at 10 mM, as compared to untreated cells (1 % benzidinepositive cells). This induction of hemoglobin synthesis was accompanied by a marked growth inhibition varying from 63 % for
the lowest concentration to 95 % for the highest. In contrast,
these concentrations of FAG had a limited effect on cell viability,
as determined by trypan blue dye exclusion, and cell death did
not exceed 5 % at the optimal differentiating concentration
(6 mM) versus 2 % in control cells.
Original Paper
GATA-1 protein analysis
Western blot analysis of GATA-1 protein expression was performed as previously described [19]. Proteins were separated on
a 10 % gel by SDS-PAGE and blotted onto PVDF membrane (Amersham). The membrane was blocked by a 2-h incubation in Trisbuffered saline containing 5 % non-fat milk, 0.05 % Tween 20. Immunodetections were performed by incubating the membrane
with the specific GATA-1 monoclonal antibody (Santa Cruz) and
then with the secondary antisera, conjugated with horse radish
peroxidase (HRP). Filters were developed using the ECL Western
blotting detection reagent (Amersham).
Fig. 2 Effects
of
FAG treatment on
cell growth and differentiation of the
K562 cell line. K562
cells were incubated
during 72 h in the
presence of various
concentrations
of
FAG (1 ± 10 mM). The
percentages of cell
growth inhibition,
hemoglobinization
and cell viability
were determined as
described in Materials and Methods.
Data are the means
 S.D (standard deviation) of three independent experiments.
The expression of erythroid mRNAs was studied after 3 days of
treatment by 6 mM FAG (Fig. 3). The PCR products analysis
showed that FAG induced the over-expression of g- and a- globin
transcripts (2-fold), of porphobilinogene deaminase (PBGD)
mRNAs (4.5-fold), a key enzyme of the heme synthesis, and of
Epo-R mRNAs (2.2-fold), a receptor for the erythropoietin hormone which regulates the erythroid differentiation process
(Fig. 3). Such an increased mRNA expression was found to be
specific to erythroid genes since the expression of GAPDH ubiquitous transcripts remained constant after FAG treatment.
Taking into account the role of GATA-1 and NF-E2 transcription
factors in the regulation of erythroid gene expression, we also examined their expression following FAG treatment (Fig. 3). Similarly, FAG induced the over-expression of GATA-1 (2.7-fold) and
NF-E2 transcripts (2.5-fold) after 3 days of treatment, as compared to control cells. These results suggested that FAG may exert its
differentiating effects by a transcriptional regulation of erythroid
gene expression.
To support these data, we examined whether the over-expression of GATA-1 transcripts was also associated with an increased
GATA-1 protein level. After 3 days of treatment with 6 mM FAG,
cell lysates were analyzed by Western blot using a monoclonal
anti GATA-1 antibody. The results shown in Fig. 4 indicate that
FAG induced a 2- to 3-fold over-expression of GATA-1 protein as
compared to untreated cells, in agreement with the over-expression of GATA-1 transcripts.
In order to determine whether the accumulation of erythroid
mRNAs resulted from a transcriptional activation mediated by
GATA-1, we have transfected K562 cells with different plasmid
constructs containing either the promoter of EPO-R or g-globin
genes upstream to the firefly luciferase gene. These 2 promoter
regions contained GATA-1 consensus sequences. Then, we analyzed the effect of FAG treatment (6 mM) for 24 or 48 hours onto
the reporter activity.
Dupont C et al. The Benzophenanthridine Alkaloid ¼ Planta Med 2005; 71: 489 ± 494
491
Fig. 4 FAG
increased GATA-1 protein
expression.
K562 cells were
treated with 6 mM
FAG during 3 days.
Western blot analysis of GATA-1 protein
was performed as described in Materials and Methods using a GATA-1
monoclonal antibody. Lane 1, K562 cells; lane 2, K562 cells + FAG. The
amount of protein loaded was normalized by performing an immunoblot analysis using an anti-actin Mab. Results from one experiment are
representative of three.
Original Paper
To determine whether the GATA binding sites contained in these
promoter sequences played a role in the FAG-mediated gene activation, we also used a construct with the GATA-1 gene promoter/enhancer region, which included two inverted canonical
GATA binding sites [4]. This construct was significantly activated
after 48 hours of FAG treatment (3.2-fold activation, Fig. 5B). In
parallel, a construct containing mutated GATA-1 binding sites located in the enhancer region was also used. In that case, FAG induced transcription activation by 1.9-fold only. These results indicated that the GATA-1 binding sites were involved in the promoter regulation induced by FAG treatment and thus represent
a molecular basis to explain the FAG-induced transcriptional
stimulation of erythroid genes.
Discussion
492
Fig. 3 FAG increased erythroid gene expression. K562 cells were induced by 6 mM FAG during 3 days. RT-PCR analysis of g-globin, a-globin, PBGD, EPO-R, GATA-1, NF-E2 and GAPDH mRNAs was performed
as described in Materials and Methods in the presence of a[32P]-d-CTP.
After electrophoresis on an 8 % polyacrylamide gel, PCR products were
detected and quantified by exposure on a Bio-Rad GS-363 Molecular
Imager. (A) Lane c, PCR negative control; lane 1, K562 cells; lane 2,
K562 cells + FAG. Results from one experiment representative of three.
(B) Quantification results obtained in FAG-treated cells are expressed
as percentages of results in control cells. Data are the means  S.D. of
three independent experiments. ** and ***, values were significantly
different from control according to Student's t test with p < 0.01 and p
< 0.001, respectively.
As shown in Fig. 5A, luciferase activity for the g-globin construct
was found to be increased in FAG-treated cells and reached a
maximum at 48 hours with a 3.3-fold activation, as compared
to untreated cells. Under the same conditions, the EPO-R promoter activation was also found activated by 2.0-fold after 24 hours
of FAG treatment and was maintained at this level after 48 hours,
(2.1-fold, Fig. 5A). As a control, the signal obtained from the
pGL2-basic plasmid never exceeded 0.1 % of the activities measured for erythroid constructs (Fig. 5A). Therefore, at the optimal
FAG differentiating concentration, a transcription of the reporter
gene under the control of erythroid gene promoter regions was
observed.
We have examined here the effects of FAG on erythroid differentiation and growth of K562 cells. FAG induced an efficient hemoglobinization of the K562 cell line without subsequent toxicity
together with a strong inhibition of cell growth (about 80 %).
These observations are in agreement with previous results [6]
and emphasize the interest in FAG which blocks cell division
through a strong growth inhibition and induction of cell differentiation. The relationship between these two effects of the
drug could be explained by the fact that cell differentiation is accompanied by a loss of proliferation capacity. No lethality was
observed at the concentration used, confirming the absence of
an acute toxicity of fagaronine on the K562 cell line.
In vitro, numerous compounds are able to induce cancer cell differentiation [1] and appear to represent an attractive alternative
or adjuvant therapy to the conventional cytotoxic chemotherapy.
Up to now, clinical applications of the differentiation therapy
have been successfully achieved with the all-trans-retinoic acid
treatment of patients with acute promyelocytic leukemia [2].
More recently, differentiation of the malignant clone and complete clinical remission has been obtained in an ATRA-refractory
APL patient treated with ATRA in combination with phenyl butyrate, an HDAC inhibitor [20]. Similar results were observed in
vitro on an ATRA-resistant cell line NB4 treated by a retinoid/butyric prodrug, which led to growth inhibition, partial differentiation and apoptosis of the resistant cells. This ªtranscription therapyº combines elements to facilitate transcriptional initiation of
blocked differentiation pathways by inhibiting histone deacetylase [21].
Dupont C et al. The Benzophenanthridine Alkaloid ¼ Planta Med 2005; 71: 489 ± 494
and NF-E2 mRNAs as well as by GATA-1 protein accumulation.
These results are in agreement with an erythroid maturation
that seems to occur at the transcriptional level. Indeed, results
obtained with reporter constructs containing erythroid gene regulatory regions showed that FAG caused an increased transcriptional activity of luciferase gene downstream of the g-globin,
EPO-R and GATA-1 promoters. Constructs with GATA-1 gene enhancer region mutated or not at the level of two GATA-1 binding
sites clearly showed that the binding of GATA-1 to its target sequence was required to stimulate reporter gene. Although we
cannot exclude that other factors are involved, it is interesting
to note that GATA-1's implication in FAG transcriptional activation was also described for the antitumor drug aclacinomycin [5].
Original Paper
All these data show for the first time that fagaronine exerts its
differentiating activity by a specific activation of regulatory regions which control the erythroid differentiation program of human erythroleukemic cells. This process involves the participation of erythroid transcription factors such as GATA-1. Fagaronine may represent a new family of natural products able to act
by modulating the activity of genes important for proliferation,
differentiation and apoptosis control.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by grants from the region of Champagne-Ardenne, the Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, ComitØs
de la Haute-Marne et de l'Aisne. C.D. was the recipient of a fellowship from the Reims city.
Fig. 5 Effects of FAG on the transcriptional activity of reporter constructs. (A) Activity of g-globin and EPO-R promoter (P). Luciferase activity in transfected K562 cells was determined as described in Materials and Methods after 24 or 48 hours of incubation in the presence or in
the absence of FAG and expressed in lights units/mg of proteins. (B)
Comparison of the luciferase activity from constructs containing the
promoter and enhancer (P./E.) of the GATA-1 gene or the promoter
and the mutated enhancer (P./mutated E.) of the same gene after 48
hours treatment with 6 mM FAG. Results are the means  S.D. of three
independent experiments. ** and ***, values significantly different
from untreated control (p < 0.01 and p < 0.001, respectively) according
to Student's t test. §§, activation values from mutated constructs were
significantly different from those obtained in non-mutated constructs
(p < 0.01, Student's t test).
In a previous work, our group was also interested in the molecular
mechanisms by which antitumor compounds can induce erythroid differentiation of the human K562 leukemic cells and demonstrated that the anthracycline derivative aclacinomycin acted at
the transcriptional level by stimulating GATA-1 and NF-E2, both
specific transcription factors regulating the expression of erythroid genes [3], [4]. Another mechanism involving the erythroid
RNA stabilization rather than its transcriptional activation was
also observed for doxorubicin, another anthracycline currently
used in clinical practice, suggesting that differentiating effects of
antitumor agents are mediated by various molecular mechanisms.
Here, we showed that hemoglobin synthesis mediated by FAG
treatment was preceded by an increased transcription of several
genes known as markers of erythroid differentiation (g- and aglobins, PBGD, and EPO-R) and by an over-expression of GATA-1
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Dupont C et al. The Benzophenanthridine Alkaloid ¼ Planta Med 2005; 71: 489 ± 494